The Convention on Biological Diversity’s post-2020 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) includes targets to formally protect thirty percent of Earth by 2030 and stimulate financialization of biodiversity conservation. This paper foregrounds potential risks and limitations of the GBF in Thailand. It examines the historical context of state-run protected areas, including their role in facilitating state territorialization and dispossession, political and cultural persecution, and deleterious economic agendas. It then shows that implementation in Thailand could displace residents of more than 200 villages and supplant roughly forty percent (3,951 square kilometers) of all state-registered community forest lands, which provide various livelihood, cultural, and conservation benefits. The paper challenges three assumptions: that parties to the Convention will recognize the rights and agency of Indigenous Peoples and local communities; that state-run protected areas are managed for biodiversity conservation and not for economic growth; and that perpetual economic growth and modernization are compatible with conservation. Effective and equitable conservation in Thailand and elsewhere requires more socially and ecologically responsive community rights-based approaches that empower (rather than supersede) customary institutions and transcend unsustainable political-economic imperatives for privatization and perpetual economic growth.
We thank King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi for supporting this research. We also thank one anonymous reviewer and the editor for providing feedback.
21 Agbor Citation2022; AIPP et al. Citation2022; Reyes-García et al. Citation2021. Defining Indigeneity is contentious, particularly in Asia, because the related concept of First Peoples is complicated in many regions by complex ethnic and political histories involving migration, displacement, colonization, and persecution (Erni Citation2008; Laungaramsri Citation2003; Leepreecha Citation2019). Thus, in accordance with the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Affairs, we consider self-determination the basis for identification (Morton and Baird Citation2019). Common characteristics of Indigeneity named by self-identified Indigenous Peoples in Asia include distinct languages, cultures, and customary institutions which are community-oriented and non-centralized; collective identities linked to ancestral territories which predate modern nation-states; strong dependence on, spiritual connection with, and knowledge of, local environments; and a history of colonization, persecution, or other restrictions on self-determination (see Erni Citation2008, 325–327). We regard “local communities” as groups which have locally-based livelihoods and may experience disadvantages in social or economic status (see Kingsbury Citation2008, 140).
34 Today, Indigenous Peoples in Thailand (Chon phao phuen mueang) generally self-identify as native and marginalized peoples (but not necessarily First Peoples) who have been labelled by the Thai government and public as members of “minority groups” (Chon kloom noi), “ethnic groups” (Kloom chattiphan), or “hill tribes” (Chao khao) (Leepreecha Citation2019). In Thailand, the international concept of Indigeneity, and a national Indigenous movement for political recognition, emerged from a global movement during the late twentieth century (Morton and Baird Citation2019). This movement in Thailand differs from prominent movements in the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand in that it emphasizes inclusion and equal rights as citizens more than territorial sovereignty or decolonization (Baird et al. Citation2017; Leepreecha Citation2019; Morton Citation2023). Although the Thai government is a signatory to the 2007 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, it currently does not recognize the existence of Indigenous Peoples in Thailand, as discussed below.
36 Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and quasi-parliamentary democracy. The government transitioned from a military dictatorship to a semi-elected, military-dominated parliamentary system in 2019. The former prime minister, Prayuth Chan-ocha, is a retired army general who overthrew a democratically elected government in a 2014 coup and then appointed hundreds of unelected officials to the Senate. Following the most recent national election in May 2023, these unelected state senators blocked the winningest party (the opposition Move Forward Party, led by Pita Limjaroenrat) from forming a coalition government.
50 Danaiya Usher Citation2009, 52. The first director of RFD, Herbert Slade, was the former Deputy Conservator of Forests in colonial Burma. After RFD was founded, Slade said that forests in Siam were now the “country’s capital”, and annual forest growth was the “country’s interests”. See Laungaramsri Citation2001, 69; RFD Citation1958, 5.
55 The English term “hill tribes” was borrowed from colonial Burma (McKinnon Citation1989, 307) and was made official in 1959 with the formation of the Hill Tribe Welfare Committee (Laungaramsri Citation2001, 42–43). In Thai state discourse, the term initially referred to nine upland ethnic groups: Akha, Hmong, H’Tin, Iu-Mien, Karen/Pwakanyaw, Khamu, Lahu, Lisu, and Lua/Lawa. A more recent list of “ethnic hill tribes” (Kloom chatiphan Chao khao) also includes Kachin, Dara’ang, Mlabri, and Shan/Tai Yai (Morton and Baird Citation2019).
60 On connections between Thailand’s national park system and state interests in modernization, including national symbolism and security, see Laungaramsri Citation2001, 74–87.
62 Laungaramsri Citation2001, 76. In an advisory report, Ruhle later wrote that “unassimilated non-Thai tribes” threatened Thailand’s national resources and therefore it was “ … essential that these tribes be stabilized as soon as possible; at the same time, retention of their identities and customs should be encouraged.” Quoted in Laungaramsri Citation2001, 184; also see Ruhle Citation1964, 10.
73 Putasen et al. Citation1992; England Citation1998. Ironically, the policy’s profit incentive led some private reforestation companies to clear native forest to plant eucalyptus trees. See Danaiya Usher Citation2009, 25–28.
74 However, following the logging ban, timber imports from Malaysia, Myanmar, and Indonesia increased rapidly, indicating that the ban did little to slow regional deforestation, and instead outsourced the social and ecological costs of logging to neighboring countries (England Citation1998, 61–62). Moreover, mangroves were exempt from the logging ban due to their importance for commercial charcoal and aquaculture industries (Laungaramsri Citation2001, 80).
75 Partial titles include utilization rights but not ownership rights (Hirsch Citation2022, 145).
76 For example, the Land Resettlement Program for the Poor Living in Degraded Forest Reserves (Khor Chor Kor) attempted (but ultimately failed) to resettle nearly one million families away from 15,000 square kilometers of forest reserve lands deemed suitable for eucalyptus plantations (Danaiya Usher Citation2009, 29–32).
79 This included Hmong communities from Thung Yai-Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, Hmong and Karen communities from Huai Kha Kheng Wildlife Sanctuary, and several communities from Doi Luang National Park (Eudey Citation1989; Sae Chua Citation2013, 90). The 1985 forest policy also included a watershed classification system that emphasizes preservation of upland headwater zones yet largely neglects land and water uses downstream. See Laungaramsri Citation2000.
85 In 2008, an estimated thirty-eight percent of the “hill tribe” population of approximately one million peoples at the time did not hold Thai citizenship. See Morton and Baird Citation2019.
95 For example, the Thai government has suspended plans to expand Ob Khan National Park near Chiang Mai in response to local protests (IWGIA Citation2024, 291–292).
100 RECOFTC Citation2021. On connections between the community forest movement and the national Indigenous rights movement, see Morton and Baird Citation2019.
105 125,680 square kilometers, including 115,712 square kilometers (22.4 percent of Thailand’s landmass) of currently existing protected areas and 9,968 square kilometers (1.9 percent of Thailand’s landmass) of DNP-planned protected areas.
109 Sites designated under the United Nations Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (See: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/ramsar-convention). Notably, in the absence of secure land tenure rights, some communities have used or are currently seeking Ramsar designation to protect community wetland forests from potential appropriation for industrial development (e.g. Cowan Citation2021).
113 Target 3 and Section C.8, CBD Citation2022. The right to free, prior and informed consent (FPIC) is enshrined in the 2007 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which in part states: “Indigenous peoples shall not be forcibly removed from their lands or territories. No relocation shall take place without the free, prior and informed consent of the indigenous peoples concerned after agreement on just and fair compensation and, where possible, with the option of return” (Article 10). The right to FPIC derives from the right to self-determination, which includes the right of all peoples to “freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development” (Article 1, 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights). On FPIC and community forestry in Thailand, see RECOFTC Citation2021.
116 We conducted the spatial analysis for this study using program ArcGIS 10.8 (Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands, California, USA). We mapped locations of villages using the most current data (2012) available from the Thai Ministry of the Interior. Spatial extents of registered community forest and state forest reserves were provided by the Department of National Parks, Wildlife, and Plant Conservation (DNP) in 2022. We obtained spatial extents of currently existing and DNP-planned protected areas (24.3 percent of Thailand’s total land area) and proposed thirty by thirty area (29.5 percent of Thailand’s total land area) used by Nirunrut Pomoim and colleagues (2022) from the first author of that study. We delineated the extent of the proposed thirty by thirty expansion area (5.2 percent of Thailand’s total land area) by erasing currently existing and DNP-planned protected areas from the proposed thirty by thirty area using the “erase” tool. We then used the “intersect” tool to determine the total area and number of registered community forests that overlap with forest reserve land, currently existing and DNP-planned protected areas, and the proposed thirty by thirty expansion area. We obtained descriptive statistics of community forest patches (shown in a footnote in ) using the “descriptive statistic” function. We then identified villages that overlap with the proposed thirty by thirty expansion area using the “select by location” function. Finally, we delineated the overlap between forest reserve land and the proposed thirty by thirty expansion area using the “intersect” tool.
117 We did not have access to reliable information to estimate sizes of these villages or understand local self-identified ethnicity, which is relevant considering the history of discriminatory state policy and forest governance (see Delcore Citation2007; Sae Chua Citation2013). We expect that each village is home to more than 100 people and we also know that these villages are ethnically diverse.
128 For example, one study found modest levels of bird diversity in a community forest patch in southern Thailand (Round et al. Citation2006). But this patch was only 4.5 hectares, which is less than one-tenth of the average size of community forests in Thailand and exceedingly small when compared to the largest community forests (see ).
135 Immediately before being charged with murdering Porlajee “Billy” Rakchongcharoen, DNP officer Chaiwat Limlikit-aksorn was an undercover agent in the corruption case against DNP’s then-director general. Limlikit-aksorn was then dismissed by DNP, and the murder charges were subsequently dropped due to insufficient evidence. Limlikit-aksorn was convicted of dereliction of duty in connection with the disappearance of Rakchongcharoen and sentenced to three years imprisonment. See Human Rights Watch Citation2022; Ngamkham Citation2023; Petchkaew Citation2023.
148 Laovakul Citation2016; Rappel and Thomas Citation1998. Although landholdings are highly unequal in Thailand, peasant movements and state-imposed constraints have limited large-scale land accumulation and absentee landholding. Consequently, Thai agribusinesses have pursued profits by accumulating land in neighboring countries. This response to domestic constraints on exploitation of lands and natural resources is analogous to what Thai logging companies did following the Thai government’s 1989 commercial logging ban. See Hirsch Citation2022.
158 Beginning in December 2023, the Office of Natural Resources and Environment Policy and Planning (within the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment) has held consultations with representatives of different groups involved in biodiversity management and conservation in Thailand, including Indigenous Peoples (see IWGIA Citation2024, 291).
IPBES. 2019. “Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.” IPBES Secretariat Report, edited by Eduardo S. Brondizio, Josef Settele, Sandra Díaz and Hien Thu Ngo. March. Accessed June 1, 2024: https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment.
UNEPFI. 2022. “150 Financial Institutions, Managing more than $24 Trillion, Call on World Leaders to Adopt Ambitious Global Biodiversity Framework at COP15.” UNEPFI News, December 13. Accessed August 7, 2023: https://www.unepfi.org/themes/ecosystems/cop15statement/.
Jung, Martin, Andy Arnell, Xavier de Lamo, Shaenandhoa García-Rangel, Matthew Lewis, Jennifer Mark, Cory Merow, et al. 2021. “Areas of Global Importance for Conserving Terrestrial Biodiversity, Carbon and Water.” Nature Ecology and Evolution 5 (11): 1499–1509.
Pomoim, Nirunrut, Yongyut Trisurat, Alice C. Hughes, and Richard T. Corlett. 2022. “Can Thailand Protect 30% of Its Land Area for Biodiversity, and Will This Be Enough?” Diversity 14 (5): 344.
West, Paige, James Igoe, and Dan Brockington. 2006. “Parks and Peoples: The Social Impacts of Protected Areas.” Annual Review of Anthropology 35 (1): 251–277.
Kashwan, Prakash, Rosaleen V. Duffy, Francis Massé, Adeniyi P. Asiyanbi, and Esther Marijnen. 2021. “From Racialized Neocolonial Global Conservation to an Inclusive and Regenerative Conservation.” Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 63 (4): 4–19.
Otero, Iago, Katharine N. Farrell, Salvador Pueyo, Giorgos Kallis, Laura Kehoe, Helmut Haberl, Christopher Plutzar, et al. 2020. “Biodiversity Policy Beyond Economic Growth.” Conservation Letters 13 (4): e12713.
Schandl, Heinz, Marina Fischer-Kowalski, James West, Stefan Giljum, Monika Dittrich, Nina Eisenmenger, Arne Geschke, et al. 2018. “Global Material Flows and Resource Productivity: Forty Years of Evidence.” Journal of Industrial Ecology 22 (4): 827–838.
Manahan, Mary Ann, and Madhuresh Kumar. 2021. The Great Takeover: Mapping of Multistakeholderism in Global Governance. Amsterdam: People’s Working Group on Multistakeholderism.
Sène, Aby L. 2023. “Justice in Nature Conservation: Limits and Possibilities Under Global Capitalism.” Climate and Development (published online October 31, 2023, doi: 10.1080/17565529.2023.2274901).
Brockington, Dan, Rosaleen V. Duffy, and Jim Igoe. 2008. Nature Unbound: Conservation, Capitalism and the Future of Protected Areas. London: Earthscan.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Manahan, Mary Ann, and Madhuresh Kumar. 2021. The Great Takeover: Mapping of Multistakeholderism in Global Governance. Amsterdam: People’s Working Group on Multistakeholderism.
Corson, Catherine, and Kenneth I. MacDonald. 2012. “Enclosing the Global Commons: the Convention on Biological Diversity and Green Grabbing.” Journal of Peasant Studies 39 (2): 263–283.
MacDonald, Kenneth Iain. 2010. “The Devil is in the (Bio)diversity: Private Sector ‘Engagement’ and the Restructuring of Biodiversity Conservation.” Antipode 42 (3): 513–550.
Johnson, Justin Andrew, Giovanni Ruta, Uris Baldos, Cervigni Raffaello, Shun Chonabayashi, Erwin Corong, Olga Gavryliuk, 1et al. 2021. “The Economic Case for Nature: A Global Earth-Economy Model to Assess Development Policy Pathways.” World Bank Environment, Natural Resources and Blue Economy Global Practive Report. June. Accessed June 1, 2024: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9f0d9a3a-83ca-5c96-bd59-9b16f4e936d8/content
Manahan, Mary Ann, and Madhuresh Kumar. 2021. The Great Takeover: Mapping of Multistakeholderism in Global Governance. Amsterdam: People’s Working Group on Multistakeholderism.
McAfee, Kathleen. 1999. “Selling Nature to Save It? Biodiversity and Green Developmentalism.” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 17 (2): 133–154.
Dempsey, Jessica, and Daniel Chiu Suarez. 2016. “Arrested Development? The Promises and Paradoxes of ‘Selling Nature to Save It.’” Annals of the American Association of Geographers 106 (3): 653–671.
Otero, Iago, Katharine N. Farrell, Salvador Pueyo, Giorgos Kallis, Laura Kehoe, Helmut Haberl, Christopher Plutzar, et al. 2020. “Biodiversity Policy Beyond Economic Growth.” Conservation Letters 13 (4): e12713.
Agbor, Desmond T. 2022. “Convention on Biological Diversity Post 2020 Target: A Critical Analyses of the Threat Posed by 30 X 30 Target, Devoid of a Human Rights Approach Towards Conservation to Land Rights in Developing Countries: Case Study Cameroon.” American Journal of Environment and Climate 1 (2): 92–99.
AIPP (Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact), Badan Registrasi Wilayah Adat, Cambodian Indigenous Peoples Alliance, Cambodia Indigenous Peoples Organization, Centre for Orang Asli Concerns, Center for Indigenous Peoples’ Research and Development, Federation of Community Forestry Users Nepal, Indigenous Media Network, Indigenous Peoples Foundation for Education and Environment, Indigenous Peoples Partnership, Indonesian Institute for Forest and Environment, Inter Mountain Peoples Education and Culture in Thailand Association, Jaringan Kerja Pemetaan Partisipatif, Land Conflict Watch, Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities, Network of Indigenous Peoples in Thailand, Non-Timber Forest Products - Exchange Programme, Partners of Community Organizations in Sabah Trust, Promotion of Indigenous and Nature Together, Rights and Resources Initiative, and Working Group ICCAs Indonesia. 2022. “Reconciling Conservation and Global Biodiversity Goals with Community Land Rights in Asia.” Rights and Resources Initiative Report. February. Accessed June 1, 2024: https://rightsandresources.org/wp-content/uploads/Asia-Conservation-Report.pdf
Reyes-García, Victoria, Álvaro Fernández-Llamazares, Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Petra Benyei, Rainer W. Bussmann, Sara K. Diamond, David García-del-Amo, et al. 2021. “Recognizing Indigenous Peoples’ and Local Communities’ Rights and Agency in the Post-2020 Biodiversity Agenda.” Ambio 51 (1): 84–92.
Erni, Christian, (ed.) 2008. The Concept of Indigenous Peoples in Asia: A Resource Book. Copenhagen: International Working Group for Indigenous Affairs; Chiang Mai: Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2003. “Ethnicity and the politics of ethnic classification in Thailand.” In Ethnicity in Asia, edited by Colin Mackerras, 157–173. London: Routledge.
Morton, Micah F., and Ian G. Baird. 2019. “From Hill Tribes to Indigenous Peoples: The Localisation of a Global Movement in Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 50 (1): 7–31.
Erni, Christian, (ed.) 2008. The Concept of Indigenous Peoples in Asia: A Resource Book. Copenhagen: International Working Group for Indigenous Affairs; Chiang Mai: Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact.
Kingsbury, Benedict. 2008. “‘Indigenous Peoples’ in International Law: A Constructivist Approach to the Asian Controversy.” In The Concept of Indigenous Peoples in Asia: A Resource Book, edited by Christian Erni, 103–158. Copenhagen: International Working Group for Indigenous Affairs; Chiang Mai: Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact.
Corson, Catherine, and Kenneth I. MacDonald. 2012. “Enclosing the Global Commons: the Convention on Biological Diversity and Green Grabbing.” Journal of Peasant Studies 39 (2): 263–283.
Dunlap, Alexander, and James Fairhead. 2014. “The Militarization and Marketization of Nature: An Alternative Lens to ‘Climate-Conflict.’” Geopolitics 19 (4): 937–961.
Kashwan, Prakash, Rosaleen V. Duffy, Francis Massé, Adeniyi P. Asiyanbi, and Esther Marijnen. 2021. “From Racialized Neocolonial Global Conservation to an Inclusive and Regenerative Conservation.” Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 63 (4): 4–19.
Fletcher, Michael-Shawn, Rebecca Hamilton, Wolfram Dressler, and Lisa Palmer. 2021. “Indigenous Knowledge and the Shackles of Wilderness.” PNAS 118 (40): e2022218118.
Reimerson, Elsa. 2013. “Between Nature and Culture: Exploring Space for Indigenous Agency in the Convention on Biological Diversity.” Environmental Politics 22 (6): 992–1009.
Vaccaro, Ismael, Oriol Beltran, and Pierre-Alexandre Paquet. 2013. “Political Ecology and Conservation Policies: Some Theoretical Genealogies.” Journal of Political Ecology 20 (1): 255–272.
Igoe, Jim, Katja Neves, and Dan Brockington. 2010. “A Spectacular Eco-Tour around the Historic Bloc: Theorizing the Convergence of Biodiversity Conservation and Capitalist Expansion.” Antipode 42 (3): 486–512.
Ellis, Erle C., Nicolas Gauthier, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Rebecca Bliege Bird, Nicole Boivin, Sandra Díaz, Dorian Q. Fuller, et al. 2021. “People Have Shaped Most of Terrestrial Nature for At Least 12,000 years.” PNAS 118 (2): e2023483118.
Santasombat, Yos. 2003. Biodiversity, Local Knowledge, and Sustainable Development. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Corson, Catherine, and Lisa M. Campbell. 2023. “Conservation at a Crossroads: Governing By Global Targets, Innovative Financing, and Techno-Optimism or Radical Reform?” Ecology and Society 28 (2): 3.
Sène, Aby L. 2023. “Justice in Nature Conservation: Limits and Possibilities Under Global Capitalism.” Climate and Development (published online October 31, 2023, doi: 10.1080/17565529.2023.2274901).
Appleton, Michael R., Alexandre Courtoil, Lucy Emerton, James L. Slade, Andrew Tilker, Lauren C. Warr, Mónica Álvarez, et al. 2022. “Protected Area Personnel and Ranger Numbers are Insufficient to Deliver Global Expectations.” Nature Sustainability 5 (12): 1100–1110.
Graham, Victoria, Jonas Geldmann, Vanessa M. Adams, Alan Grech, Stefanie Deinet, and Hsing-Chung Chang. 2021. “Management Resourcing and Government Transparency Are Key Drivers of Biodiversity Outcomes in Southeast Asian Protected Areas.” Biological Conservation 253 (1): 108875.
Buenavista, Dave P., Sophie Wynn-Jones, and Morag McDonald. 2019. “Asian Indigeneity, Indigenous Knowledge Systems, and Challenges of the 2030 Agenda.” East Asian Community Review 1 (3/4): 221–240.
Santasombat, Yos. 2003. Biodiversity, Local Knowledge, and Sustainable Development. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Morton, Micah F., and Ian G. Baird. 2019. “From Hill Tribes to Indigenous Peoples: The Localisation of a Global Movement in Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 50 (1): 7–31.
Baird, Ian G., Prasit Leepreecha, and Urai Yangcheepsutjarit. 2017. “Who Should Be Considered ‘Indigenous’? A Survey of Ethnic Groups in Northern Thailand.” Asian Ethnicity 18 (4): 543–562.
Morton, Micah F. 2023. “Multiculturalism from Below: Indigeneity and the Struggle for Recognition in Thailand.” Journal of Anthropological Research 79 (1): 3–30.
Dearden, Philip. 2002. “Development and Biocultural Diversity in Northern Thailand.” In Environmental Protection and Rural Development in Thailand: Challenges and Opportunities, edited by Philip Dearden, 41–69. Bangkok: White Lotus Books.
Santasombat, Yos. 2003. Biodiversity, Local Knowledge, and Sustainable Development. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Brodie, Jedediah F., Jayasilan Mohd-Azlan, Cheng Chen, Oliver R. Wearn, Mairin C. M. Deith, James G. C. Ball, Eleanor M. Slade, et al. 2023. “Landscape-Scale Benefits of Protected Areas for Tropical Biodiversity.” Nature 620 (7975): 807–812.
Singh, Minerva, Charlotte Griaud, and C. Matilda Collins. 2021. “An evaluation of the effectiveness of protected areas in Thailand.” Ecological Indicators 125: 107536.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Sae Chua, Bencharat. 2013. “Rights Claims and the Strategic Use of Culture to Protect Human Rights: The Community Forest Movement in Thailand.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 85–114. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Phongpaichit, Pasuk, and Chris Baker, (eds.) 2016. Unequal Thailand: Aspects of Income, Wealth and Power. Singapore: National University Singapore Press.
Peluso, Nancy Lee, and Peter Vandergeest. 2001. “Genealogies of the Political Forest and Customary Rights in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.” Journal of Asian Studies 60 (3): 761–812.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Larsson, Tomas. 2008. “Western Imperialism and Defensive Underdevelopment of Property Rights Institutions in Siam.” Journal of East Asian Studies 8 (1): 1–28.
Putasen, Apichai. 1998. “The Tambon Council and Community Forest Management.” In Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand, edited by Philip Hirsch, 72–88. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
De’Ath, Colin. 1992. “A History of Timber Exports from Thailand within the 1870-1937 Period.” Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society 40 (1): 49–66.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
RFD. 1958. Prawat Lae Phon Ngan Khong Krom Pa Mai: 2439–2500 [The History of Work of the Royal Forest Department: 1886-1957]. Bangkok: Royal Forestry Department.
Ganjanapan, Santita. 1998. “A Comparative Study of Indigenous and Scientific Concepts in Land and Forest Classification in Northern Thailand.” In Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand, edited by Philip Hirsch, 247–267. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Sato, Jin. 2003. “Informational Basis of Policy Judgments: The Case of the Royal Forest Department of Thailand.” In People and Forest - Policy and Local Reality in Southeast Asia, the Russia Far East, and Japan, edited by Makoto Inoue, and Hiroji Isozaki, 169–185. New York: Springer.
Samudavanija, Chai-Anan. 2002. “State-Identity Creation, State-Building and Civil Society, 1939-1989.” In National Identity and its Defenders: Thailand Today, edited by Craig J. Reynolds, 49–70. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Samudavanija, Chai-Anan. 2002. “State-Identity Creation, State-Building and Civil Society, 1939-1989.” In National Identity and its Defenders: Thailand Today, edited by Craig J. Reynolds, 49–70. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Sivaraksa, Sulak. 2002. “The Crisis of Siamese Identity.” In National Identity and Its Defenders: Thailand Today, edited by Craig J. Reynolds, 33–48. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Vandergeest, Peter, and Nancy Lee Peluso. 2006. “Empires of Forestry: Professional Forestry and State Power in Southeast Asia, Part 1.” Environment and History 12 (1): 31–64.
McKinnon, John. 1989. “Structural Assimilation and the Consensus: Clearing Grounds on Which to Rearrange Our Thoughts.” In Hill Tribes Today: Problems in Change, edited by John McKinnon, and Bernard Vienne, 303–359. Bangkok: White Lotus Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Morton, Micah F., and Ian G. Baird. 2019. “From Hill Tribes to Indigenous Peoples: The Localisation of a Global Movement in Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 50 (1): 7–31.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2003. “Ethnicity and the politics of ethnic classification in Thailand.” In Ethnicity in Asia, edited by Colin Mackerras, 157–173. London: Routledge.
Sakboon, Mukdawan. 2013. “Controlling Bad Drugs, Creating Good Citizens: Citizenship and Social Immobility for Thailand’s Highland Ethnic Minorities.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 213–237. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Sakboon, Mukdawan. 2013. “Controlling Bad Drugs, Creating Good Citizens: Citizenship and Social Immobility for Thailand’s Highland Ethnic Minorities.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 213–237. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Narintarangkul Na Ayuthaya, Pratuang. 1998. “Community Forestry and Watershed Networks in Northern Thailand.” In Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand, edited by Philip Hirsch, 116–146. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Santasombat, Yos. 2003. Biodiversity, Local Knowledge, and Sustainable Development. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Ruhle, George. 1964. “Advisory Report on a National Park System for Thailand, 1959-1960.” New York: Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and the American Committee for International Wild Life Protection.
Sato, Jin. 2003. “Informational Basis of Policy Judgments: The Case of the Royal Forest Department of Thailand.” In People and Forest - Policy and Local Reality in Southeast Asia, the Russia Far East, and Japan, edited by Makoto Inoue, and Hiroji Isozaki, 169–185. New York: Springer.
Sae Chua, Bencharat. 2013. “Rights Claims and the Strategic Use of Culture to Protect Human Rights: The Community Forest Movement in Thailand.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 85–114. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Sato, Jin. 2003. “Informational Basis of Policy Judgments: The Case of the Royal Forest Department of Thailand.” In People and Forest - Policy and Local Reality in Southeast Asia, the Russia Far East, and Japan, edited by Makoto Inoue, and Hiroji Isozaki, 169–185. New York: Springer.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Trébuil, Guy. 1995. “Pioneer Agriculture, Green Revolution and Environmental Degradation in Thailand.” In Counting the Costs: Economic Growth and Environmental Change in Thailand, edited by Jonathan Rigg, 67–89. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Ganjanapan, Anan. 1998b. “The Politics of Environment in Northern Thailand: Ethnicity and Highland Development Programs.” In Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand, edited by Philip Hirsch, 202–222. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Sae Chua, Bencharat. 2013. “Rights Claims and the Strategic Use of Culture to Protect Human Rights: The Community Forest Movement in Thailand.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 85–114. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Delang, Claudio O. 2002. “Deforestation in Northern Thailand: The Result of Hmong Farming Practices or Thai Development Strategies?” Society and Natural Resources 15 (6): 483–501.
Trébuil, Guy. 1995. “Pioneer Agriculture, Green Revolution and Environmental Degradation in Thailand.” In Counting the Costs: Economic Growth and Environmental Change in Thailand, edited by Jonathan Rigg, 67–89. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
McKinnon, John. 1989. “Structural Assimilation and the Consensus: Clearing Grounds on Which to Rearrange Our Thoughts.” In Hill Tribes Today: Problems in Change, edited by John McKinnon, and Bernard Vienne, 303–359. Bangkok: White Lotus Books.
Delang, Claudio O. 2002. “Deforestation in Northern Thailand: The Result of Hmong Farming Practices or Thai Development Strategies?” Society and Natural Resources 15 (6): 483–501.
Enters, Thomas. 1995. “The Economics of Land Degradation and Resource Conservation in Northern Thailand: Challenging the Assumptions.” In Counting the Costs: Economic Growth and Environmental Change in Thailand, edited by Jonathon Rigg, 90–110. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Putasen, Apichai, Somboon Siriprachai, and Chaiyuth Punyasavatsut. 1992. “Political Economy of Eucalyptus: Business, Bureaucracy, and the Thai Government.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 22 (2): 187–206.
England, Philippa. 1998. “UNCED and the Implementation of Forest Policy in Thailand.” In Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand, edited by Philip Hirsch, 53–71. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
England, Philippa. 1998. “UNCED and the Implementation of Forest Policy in Thailand.” In Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand, edited by Philip Hirsch, 53–71. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Hirsch, Philip. 2022. “Movement, Countermovement, and Regionalization of Capital: The Dynamics of Land Relations in Thailand.” In Turning Land into Capital: Development and Dispossession in the Mekong Region, edited by Philip Hirsch, Kevin Woods, Natalia Scurrah, and Michael B. Dwyer, 135–152. Seattle: Washington University Press.
Buergin, Reiner. 2015. “Contested Rights of Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples in Conflicts over Biocultural Diversity: the Case of Karen Communities in Thung Yai, a World Heritage Site in Thailand.” Modern Asian Studies 49 (6): 2022–2062.
Wittayapak, Chusak, and Ian G. Baird. 2018. “Communal Land Titling Dilemmas in Northern Thailand: from Community Forestry to Beneficial Yet Risky and Uncertain Options.” Land Use Policy 71 (1): 320–328.
England, Philippa. 1998. “UNCED and the Implementation of Forest Policy in Thailand.” In Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand, edited by Philip Hirsch, 53–71. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Government of Thailand. 1992. “The Seventh National Economic and Social Development Plan (1992-1996).” Bangkok: National Economic and Social Development Board. Accessed June 1, 2024: https://www.nesdc.go.th/nesdb_en/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=3782
Eudey, Ardith A. 1989. “14 April 1986: Eviction Orders to the Hmong of Huai Yew Yee Village, Huai Khaeng Wildlife sanctuary, Thailand.” In Hill Tribes Today: Problems in Change, edited by John McKinnon, and Bernard Vienne, 249–258. Bangkok: White Lotus Books.
Sae Chua, Bencharat. 2013. “Rights Claims and the Strategic Use of Culture to Protect Human Rights: The Community Forest Movement in Thailand.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 85–114. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2000. “The Ambiguity of Watershed: The Politics of People and Conservation in Northern Thailand.” Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 15 (1): 52–75.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Vandergeest, Peter. 1996. “Property Rights in Protected Areas: Obstacles to Community Involvement as a Solution in Thailand.” Environmental Conservation 23 (3): 259–268.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Sims, Katharine R. E. 2010. “Conservation and Development: Evidence from Thai Protected Areas.” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 60 (2): 94–114.
Sae Chua, Bencharat. 2013. “Rights Claims and the Strategic Use of Culture to Protect Human Rights: The Community Forest Movement in Thailand.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 85–114. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Morton, Micah F., and Ian G. Baird. 2019. “From Hill Tribes to Indigenous Peoples: The Localisation of a Global Movement in Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 50 (1): 7–31.
McCaskill, Don, and Jeff Rutherford. 2005. “Indigenous Peoples of South-East Asia: Poverty, Identity and Resistance.” In Indigenous Peoples and Poverty: An International Perspective, edited by Robyn Eversole, John-Andrew McNeish, and Alberto D. Cimadamore, 126–156. London: Zed Books.
Moonpanane, Katemanee, Khanittha Pitchalard, Jintana Thepsaw, Onnalin Singkhorn, and Chomnard Potjanamart. 2022. “Healthcare Service Utilization of Hill Tribe Children in Underserved Communities in Thailand: Barriers to Access.” BMC Health Services Research 22 (1): 1114.
Sakboon, Mukdawan. 2013. “Controlling Bad Drugs, Creating Good Citizens: Citizenship and Social Immobility for Thailand’s Highland Ethnic Minorities.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 213–237. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Stavenhagen, Rudolfo. 2008. “General Considerations on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous Peoples in Asia.” In The Concept of Indigenous Peoples in Asia: A Resource Book, edited by Christian Erni, 305–322. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs; Chiang Mai: Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact.
Morton, Micah F., and Ian G. Baird. 2019. “From Hill Tribes to Indigenous Peoples: The Localisation of a Global Movement in Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 50 (1): 7–31.
Myint Oo, Phone. 2018. Commoditization of Culture in an Ethnic Community: The ‘Long-Necked’ Kayan (Padaung) in Mae Hong Son, Thailand. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University Press.
Buergin, Reiner. 2015. “Contested Rights of Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples in Conflicts over Biocultural Diversity: the Case of Karen Communities in Thung Yai, a World Heritage Site in Thailand.” Modern Asian Studies 49 (6): 2022–2062.
Santasombat, Yos. 2003. Biodiversity, Local Knowledge, and Sustainable Development. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Phongchiewboon, Aurathai, Trisia A. Farrelly, Karen F. Hytten, and John Holland. 2020. “Political Ecology, Privation and Sustainable Livelihoods in Northern Thailand’s National Parks.” Journal of Political Ecology 27 (1): 360–377.
Haenssgen, Marco J., Prasit Leepreecha, Mukdawan Sakboon, Ta-Wei Chu, Ivo Vlaev, and Elizabeth Auclair. 2023. “The Impact of Conservation and Land Use Transitions on the Livelihoods of Indigenous Peoples: A Narrative Review of the Northern Thai Highlands.” Forest Policy and Economics 157 (1): 103092.
Phongchiewboon, Aurathai, Trisia A. Farrelly, Karen F. Hytten, and John Holland. 2020. “Political Ecology, Privation and Sustainable Livelihoods in Northern Thailand’s National Parks.” Journal of Political Ecology 27 (1): 360–377.
Agarwal, Shivani, Banjit Sairorkham, Phimonphan Sakitram, and Eric F. Labin. 2022. “Effectiveness of Community Forests for Forest Conservation in Nan Province, Thailand.” Journal of Land Use Science 17 (1): 307–323.
Thammanu, Siriluck, Dorak Marod, Hee Han, Narayan Bhusal, Lamthai Asanok, Pipat Ketdee, Noppakoon Gaewsingha, Seunghyun Lee, and Joosang Chung. 2021. “The Influence of Environmental Factors on Species Composition and Distribution in a Community Forest in Northern Thailand.” Journal of Forestry Research 32 (2): 649–662.
Ganjanapan, Anan. 2000. Local Control of Land and Forest: Cultural Dimensions of Resource Management in Northern Thailand. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Khongswasdi, Jarunee. 2022. “Community Forests as Intangible Cultural Heritage and the Community Forest Act of 2019.” Journal of the Siam Society 110 (1): 69–86.
Santasombat, Yos. 2003. Biodiversity, Local Knowledge, and Sustainable Development. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Sae Chua, Bencharat. 2013. “Rights Claims and the Strategic Use of Culture to Protect Human Rights: The Community Forest Movement in Thailand.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 85–114. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Vaddhanaphuti, Chayan, and Malee Sitthikriengkrai. 2019. “Living with and in the forest in northern Thailand: Engaging Karen youth in participatory community research.” International Institute for Asian Studies Newsletter 82 (Spring). Accessed February 14, 2024: https://www.iias.asia/sites/iias/files/nwl_article/2019-05/IIAS_NL82_5051.pdf
Ganjanapan, Anan. 1998a. “The Politics of Conservation and the Complexity of Local Control of Forests in the Northern Thai Highlands.” Mountain Research and Development 18 (1): 71–82.
Buergin, Reiner. 2015. “Contested Rights of Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples in Conflicts over Biocultural Diversity: the Case of Karen Communities in Thung Yai, a World Heritage Site in Thailand.” Modern Asian Studies 49 (6): 2022–2062.
Santasombat, Yos. 2003. Biodiversity, Local Knowledge, and Sustainable Development. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Morton, Micah F., and Ian G. Baird. 2019. “From Hill Tribes to Indigenous Peoples: The Localisation of a Global Movement in Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 50 (1): 7–31.
Khongswasdi, Jarunee. 2022. “Community Forests as Intangible Cultural Heritage and the Community Forest Act of 2019.” Journal of the Siam Society 110 (1): 69–86.
Wittayapak, Chusak, and Ian G. Baird. 2018. “Communal Land Titling Dilemmas in Northern Thailand: from Community Forestry to Beneficial Yet Risky and Uncertain Options.” Land Use Policy 71 (1): 320–328.
Haenssgen, Marco J., Prasit Leepreecha, Mukdawan Sakboon, Ta-Wei Chu, Ivo Vlaev, and Elizabeth Auclair. 2023. “The Impact of Conservation and Land Use Transitions on the Livelihoods of Indigenous Peoples: A Narrative Review of the Northern Thai Highlands.” Forest Policy and Economics 157 (1): 103092.
Dawson, Neil M., Brendan Coolsaet, Eleanor J. Sterling, Robin Loveridge, Nicole D. Gross-Camp, Supin Wongbusarakum, Kamaljit K. Sangha, et al. 2021. “The Role of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities in Effective and Equitable Conservation.” Ecology and Society 26 (3): 19.
Dawson, Neil M., Brendan Coolsaet, Aditi Bhardwaj, Francesca Booker, David Brown, Bosco Lilso, Jacqueline Loos, et al. 2024. “Is it Just conservation? A Typology of Indigenous Peoples’ and Local Communities’ Roles in Conservation Biodiversity.” One Earth7. doi: 10.1016/j.oneear.2024.05.001.
Pomoim, Nirunrut, Yongyut Trisurat, Alice C. Hughes, and Richard T. Corlett. 2022. “Can Thailand Protect 30% of Its Land Area for Biodiversity, and Will This Be Enough?” Diversity 14 (5): 344.
Wyborn, Carina, and Megan C. Evans. 2021. “Conservation Needs to Break Free From Global Priority Mapping.” Nature Ecology and Evolution 5 (10): 1322–1324.
Pomoim, Nirunrut, Yongyut Trisurat, Alice C. Hughes, and Richard T. Corlett. 2022. “Can Thailand Protect 30% of Its Land Area for Biodiversity, and Will This Be Enough?” Diversity 14 (5): 344.
Pomoim, Nirunrut, Yongyut Trisurat, Alice C. Hughes, and Richard T. Corlett. 2022. “Can Thailand Protect 30% of Its Land Area for Biodiversity, and Will This Be Enough?” Diversity 14 (5): 344.
Pomoim, Nirunrut, Yongyut Trisurat, Alice C. Hughes, and Richard T. Corlett. 2022. “Can Thailand Protect 30% of Its Land Area for Biodiversity, and Will This Be Enough?” Diversity 14 (5): 344.
Pomoim, Nirunrut, Yongyut Trisurat, Alice C. Hughes, and Richard T. Corlett. 2022. “Can Thailand Protect 30% of Its Land Area for Biodiversity, and Will This Be Enough?” Diversity 14 (5): 344.
Erni, Christian, (ed.) 2008. The Concept of Indigenous Peoples in Asia: A Resource Book. Copenhagen: International Working Group for Indigenous Affairs; Chiang Mai: Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact.
Morton, Micah F., and Ian G. Baird. 2019. “From Hill Tribes to Indigenous Peoples: The Localisation of a Global Movement in Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 50 (1): 7–31.
Morton, Micah F., and Ian G. Baird. 2019. “From Hill Tribes to Indigenous Peoples: The Localisation of a Global Movement in Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 50 (1): 7–31.
Sakboon, Mukdawan. 2013. “Controlling Bad Drugs, Creating Good Citizens: Citizenship and Social Immobility for Thailand’s Highland Ethnic Minorities.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 213–237. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Haenssgen, Marco J., Prasit Leepreecha, Mukdawan Sakboon, Ta-Wei Chu, Ivo Vlaev, and Elizabeth Auclair. 2023. “The Impact of Conservation and Land Use Transitions on the Livelihoods of Indigenous Peoples: A Narrative Review of the Northern Thai Highlands.” Forest Policy and Economics 157 (1): 103092.
Sae Chua, Bencharat. 2013. “Rights Claims and the Strategic Use of Culture to Protect Human Rights: The Community Forest Movement in Thailand.” In Rights to Culture: Heritage, Language, and Community in Thailand, edited by Coeli Barry, 85–114. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Pomoim, Nirunrut, Yongyut Trisurat, Alice C. Hughes, and Richard T. Corlett. 2022. “Can Thailand Protect 30% of Its Land Area for Biodiversity, and Will This Be Enough?” Diversity 14 (5): 344.
AIPP (Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact), Badan Registrasi Wilayah Adat, Cambodian Indigenous Peoples Alliance, Cambodia Indigenous Peoples Organization, Centre for Orang Asli Concerns, Center for Indigenous Peoples’ Research and Development, Federation of Community Forestry Users Nepal, Indigenous Media Network, Indigenous Peoples Foundation for Education and Environment, Indigenous Peoples Partnership, Indonesian Institute for Forest and Environment, Inter Mountain Peoples Education and Culture in Thailand Association, Jaringan Kerja Pemetaan Partisipatif, Land Conflict Watch, Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities, Network of Indigenous Peoples in Thailand, Non-Timber Forest Products - Exchange Programme, Partners of Community Organizations in Sabah Trust, Promotion of Indigenous and Nature Together, Rights and Resources Initiative, and Working Group ICCAs Indonesia. 2022. “Reconciling Conservation and Global Biodiversity Goals with Community Land Rights in Asia.” Rights and Resources Initiative Report. February. Accessed June 1, 2024: https://rightsandresources.org/wp-content/uploads/Asia-Conservation-Report.pdf
Yng, Teh Kate, and Rittirong Kaoteera. 2021. “Do Community Cultures and Traditions Influence on Nature Conservation Perspectives? A Case of Khao Yai National Park in Thailand.” Journal of Sustainability Science and Management 16 (6): 228–242.
Sheil, Douglas, Manuel Boissière, and Guillaume Beaudoin. 2015. “Unseen Sentinels: Local Monitoring and Control in Conservation’s Blind Spots.” Ecology and Society 20 (2): 39.
Fung, Zali, and Vanessa Lamb. 2023. “Dams, Diversions, and Development: Slow Resistance and Authoritarian Rule in the Salween River Basin.” Antipode 55 (6): 1662–1685.
Buergin, Reiner. 2015. “Contested Rights of Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples in Conflicts over Biocultural Diversity: the Case of Karen Communities in Thung Yai, a World Heritage Site in Thailand.” Modern Asian Studies 49 (6): 2022–2062.
Khongswasdi, Jarunee. 2022. “Community Forests as Intangible Cultural Heritage and the Community Forest Act of 2019.” Journal of the Siam Society 110 (1): 69–86.
Agarwal, Shivani, Banjit Sairorkham, Phimonphan Sakitram, and Eric F. Labin. 2022. “Effectiveness of Community Forests for Forest Conservation in Nan Province, Thailand.” Journal of Land Use Science 17 (1): 307–323.
Thammanu, Siriluck, Dorak Marod, Hee Han, Narayan Bhusal, Lamthai Asanok, Pipat Ketdee, Noppakoon Gaewsingha, Seunghyun Lee, and Joosang Chung. 2021. “The Influence of Environmental Factors on Species Composition and Distribution in a Community Forest in Northern Thailand.” Journal of Forestry Research 32 (2): 649–662.
Srisutham, Mallika, and Narueamol Kaewjampa. 2010. “Indigenous Community Forest Management in Northeastern Thailand: Biodiversity Conservation through Rural Development.” International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development 1 (2): 28–32.
Kongkaew, Chaturong, Jawanit Kittitornkool, Peter Vandergeest, and Kongkiat Kittiwatanawong. 2019. “Explaining Success in Community Based Mangrove Management: Four Coastal Communities along the Andaman Sea, Thailand.” Ocean and Coastal Management 178 (1): 104822.
Round, Philip D., George A. Gale, and Warren Y. Brockelman. 2006. “A Comparison of Bird Communities in Mixed Fruit Orchards and Natural Forest at Khao Luang, Southern Thailand.” Biodiversity and Conservation 15 (9): 2873–2891.
Ganjanapan, Anan. 2000. Local Control of Land and Forest: Cultural Dimensions of Resource Management in Northern Thailand. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Phromma, Issara, Adcharaporn Pagdee, Ananya Popradit, Atsushi Ishida, and Somkid Uttaranakorn. 2019. “Protected Area Co-management and Land use Conflicts Adjacent to Phu Kao–Phu Phan Kham National Park, Thailand.” Journal of Sustainable Forestry 8 (5): 486–507.
Limnirankul, Budsara, Thaworn Onprapai, and Phrek Gypmantasiri. 2015. “Building Local Capacities in Natural Resources Management for Food Security in the Highlands of Northern Thailand.” Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 5 (1): 30–37.
Phongchiewboon, Aurathai, Trisia A. Farrelly, Karen F. Hytten, and John Holland. 2020. “Political Ecology, Privation and Sustainable Livelihoods in Northern Thailand’s National Parks.” Journal of Political Ecology 27 (1): 360–377.
Phromma, Issara, Adcharaporn Pagdee, Ananya Popradit, Atsushi Ishida, and Somkid Uttaranakorn. 2019. “Protected Area Co-management and Land use Conflicts Adjacent to Phu Kao–Phu Phan Kham National Park, Thailand.” Journal of Sustainable Forestry 8 (5): 486–507.
Pomoim, Nirunrut, Yongyut Trisurat, Alice C. Hughes, and Richard T. Corlett. 2022. “Can Thailand Protect 30% of Its Land Area for Biodiversity, and Will This Be Enough?” Diversity 14 (5): 344.
Pomoim, Nirunrut, Yongyut Trisurat, Alice C. Hughes, and Richard T. Corlett. 2022. “Can Thailand Protect 30% of Its Land Area for Biodiversity, and Will This Be Enough?” Diversity 14 (5): 344.
Government of Thailand. 2023. “The Thirteen National Economic and Social Development Plan (2023-2027).” Bangkok: National Economic and Social Development Board. Accessed June 1, 2024: https://www.nesdc.go.th/nesdb_en/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=4500
Bunjongsiri, Kultida. 2019. “The Overview of Carbon Credit Market in Thailand.” Southeast Asia University Journal of Science and Technology 5 (2): 1–9.
Pomoim, Nirunrut, Yongyut Trisurat, Alice C. Hughes, and Richard T. Corlett. 2022. “Can Thailand Protect 30% of Its Land Area for Biodiversity, and Will This Be Enough?” Diversity 14 (5): 344.
Woodhouse, Emily, Claire Bedelian, Paul Barnes, Gisella S. Cruz-Garcia, Neil Dawson, Nicole Gross-Camp, Katherine Homewood, Julia P.G. Jones, Adrian Martin, Elisa Morgera, and Kate Schreckenberg. 2022. “Rethinking Entrenched Narratives about Protected Areas and Human Wellbeing in the Global South.” UCL Open Environment 4: 27.
Laovakul, Duangmanee. 2016. “Concentration of Land and Other Wealth in Thailand.” In Unequal Thailand: Aspects of Income, Wealth and Power, edited by Pasuk Phongpaichit, and Chris Baker, 32–42. Singapore: National University Singapore Press.
Rappel, Ian J., and Neil H. Thomas. 1998. “An Examination of the Compatibility of World Bank Policies Towards Population, Development and Biodiversity in the Third World.” The Environmentalist 18 (1): 95–108.
Hirsch, Philip. 2022. “Movement, Countermovement, and Regionalization of Capital: The Dynamics of Land Relations in Thailand.” In Turning Land into Capital: Development and Dispossession in the Mekong Region, edited by Philip Hirsch, Kevin Woods, Natalia Scurrah, and Michael B. Dwyer, 135–152. Seattle: Washington University Press.
Ganjanapan, Anan. 1998a. “The Politics of Conservation and the Complexity of Local Control of Forests in the Northern Thai Highlands.” Mountain Research and Development 18 (1): 71–82.
Schandl, Heinz, Marina Fischer-Kowalski, James West, Stefan Giljum, Monika Dittrich, Nina Eisenmenger, Arne Geschke, et al. 2018. “Global Material Flows and Resource Productivity: Forty Years of Evidence.” Journal of Industrial Ecology 22 (4): 827–838.
Weinzettel, Jan, Edgar G. Hertwich, Glen P. Peters, Kjartan Steen-Olsen, and Alessandro Galli. 2013. “Affluence Drives the Global Displacement of Land Use.” Global Environmental Change 23 (2): 433–438.
Benatar, Solomon, Ross Upshur, and Stephen Gill. 2018. “Understanding the Relationship Between Ethics, Neoliberalism and Power as a Step Towards Improving the Health of People and Our Planet.” Anthropocene Review 5 (2): 1–22.
Hickel, Jason. 2020. “Quantifying National Responsibility for Climate Breakdown: an Equality-Based Attribution Approach for Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Excess of the Planetary Boundary.” Lancet: Planetary Health 4 (9): e399–404.
Laovakul, Duangmanee. 2016. “Concentration of Land and Other Wealth in Thailand.” In Unequal Thailand: Aspects of Income, Wealth and Power, edited by Pasuk Phongpaichit, and Chris Baker, 32–42. Singapore: National University Singapore Press.
Phongpaichit, Pasuk, and Chris Baker, (eds.) 2016. Unequal Thailand: Aspects of Income, Wealth and Power. Singapore: National University Singapore Press.
Hickel, Jason, Christian Dorninger, Hanspeter Wieland, and Intan Suwandi. 2022a. “Imperialist Appropriation in the World Economy: Drain from the Global South through Unequal Exchange, 1990–2015.” Global Environmental Change 73 (1): 102467.
Weinzettel, Jan, Edgar G. Hertwich, Glen P. Peters, Kjartan Steen-Olsen, and Alessandro Galli. 2013. “Affluence Drives the Global Displacement of Land Use.” Global Environmental Change 23 (2): 433–438.
Hickel, Jason, Christian Dorninger, Hanspeter Wieland, and Intan Suwandi. 2022a. “Imperialist Appropriation in the World Economy: Drain from the Global South through Unequal Exchange, 1990–2015.” Global Environmental Change 73 (1): 102467.
Corson, Catherine, and Kenneth I. MacDonald. 2012. “Enclosing the Global Commons: the Convention on Biological Diversity and Green Grabbing.” Journal of Peasant Studies 39 (2): 263–283.
Manahan, Mary Ann, and Madhuresh Kumar. 2021. The Great Takeover: Mapping of Multistakeholderism in Global Governance. Amsterdam: People’s Working Group on Multistakeholderism.
Büscher, Bram, Robert Fletcher, Dan Brockington, Chris Sandbrook, William M. Adams, Lisa Campbell, Catherine Corson, et al. 2017. “Half-Earth or Whole Earth? Radical Ideas for Conservation, and Their Implications.” Oryx 51 (3): 407–410.
Tantipisanuh, Naruemon, and George A. Gale. 2013. “Representation of Threatened Vertebrates by a Protected Area System in Southeast Asia: The Importance of Non-forest Habitats.” Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 61 (1): 359–395.
Singh, Minerva, Charlotte Griaud, and C. Matilda Collins. 2021. “An evaluation of the effectiveness of protected areas in Thailand.” Ecological Indicators 125: 107536.
Khongswasdi, Jarunee. 2022. “Community Forests as Intangible Cultural Heritage and the Community Forest Act of 2019.” Journal of the Siam Society 110 (1): 69–86.
Wyborn, Carina, and Megan C. Evans. 2021. “Conservation Needs to Break Free From Global Priority Mapping.” Nature Ecology and Evolution 5 (10): 1322–1324.
Yng, Teh Kate, and Rittirong Kaoteera. 2021. “Do Community Cultures and Traditions Influence on Nature Conservation Perspectives? A Case of Khao Yai National Park in Thailand.” Journal of Sustainability Science and Management 16 (6): 228–242.
AIPP (Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact), Badan Registrasi Wilayah Adat, Cambodian Indigenous Peoples Alliance, Cambodia Indigenous Peoples Organization, Centre for Orang Asli Concerns, Center for Indigenous Peoples’ Research and Development, Federation of Community Forestry Users Nepal, Indigenous Media Network, Indigenous Peoples Foundation for Education and Environment, Indigenous Peoples Partnership, Indonesian Institute for Forest and Environment, Inter Mountain Peoples Education and Culture in Thailand Association, Jaringan Kerja Pemetaan Partisipatif, Land Conflict Watch, Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities, Network of Indigenous Peoples in Thailand, Non-Timber Forest Products - Exchange Programme, Partners of Community Organizations in Sabah Trust, Promotion of Indigenous and Nature Together, Rights and Resources Initiative, and Working Group ICCAs Indonesia. 2022. “Reconciling Conservation and Global Biodiversity Goals with Community Land Rights in Asia.” Rights and Resources Initiative Report. February. Accessed June 1, 2024: https://rightsandresources.org/wp-content/uploads/Asia-Conservation-Report.pdf
Dawson, Neil M., Brendan Coolsaet, Eleanor J. Sterling, Robin Loveridge, Nicole D. Gross-Camp, Supin Wongbusarakum, Kamaljit K. Sangha, et al. 2021. “The Role of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities in Effective and Equitable Conservation.” Ecology and Society 26 (3): 19.
Dawson, Neil M., Brendan Coolsaet, Aditi Bhardwaj, Francesca Booker, David Brown, Bosco Lilso, Jacqueline Loos, et al. 2024. “Is it Just conservation? A Typology of Indigenous Peoples’ and Local Communities’ Roles in Conservation Biodiversity.” One Earth7. doi: 10.1016/j.oneear.2024.05.001.
Kongkaew, Chaturong, Jawanit Kittitornkool, Peter Vandergeest, and Kongkiat Kittiwatanawong. 2019. “Explaining Success in Community Based Mangrove Management: Four Coastal Communities along the Andaman Sea, Thailand.” Ocean and Coastal Management 178 (1): 104822.
Oldekop Johan A., George Holmes, W. Edwin Harris, and Karl L. Evans. 2016. “A Global Assessment of the Social and Conservation Outcomes of Protected Areas.” Conservation Biology 30 (1): 133–141.
Woodhouse, Emily, Claire Bedelian, Paul Barnes, Gisella S. Cruz-Garcia, Neil Dawson, Nicole Gross-Camp, Katherine Homewood, Julia P.G. Jones, Adrian Martin, Elisa Morgera, and Kate Schreckenberg. 2022. “Rethinking Entrenched Narratives about Protected Areas and Human Wellbeing in the Global South.” UCL Open Environment 4: 27.
Otero, Iago, Katharine N. Farrell, Salvador Pueyo, Giorgos Kallis, Laura Kehoe, Helmut Haberl, Christopher Plutzar, et al. 2020. “Biodiversity Policy Beyond Economic Growth.” Conservation Letters 13 (4): e12713.
Buergin, Reiner. 2015. “Contested Rights of Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples in Conflicts over Biocultural Diversity: the Case of Karen Communities in Thung Yai, a World Heritage Site in Thailand.” Modern Asian Studies 49 (6): 2022–2062.
Santasombat, Yos. 2003. Biodiversity, Local Knowledge, and Sustainable Development. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Yng, Teh Kate, and Rittirong Kaoteera. 2021. “Do Community Cultures and Traditions Influence on Nature Conservation Perspectives? A Case of Khao Yai National Park in Thailand.” Journal of Sustainability Science and Management 16 (6): 228–242.
Laungaramsri, Pinkaew. 2001. Redefining Nature: Karen Ecological Knowledge and the Challenge to the Modern Conservation Paradigm. Chennai: Earthworm Books.
Limnirankul, Budsara, Thaworn Onprapai, and Phrek Gypmantasiri. 2015. “Building Local Capacities in Natural Resources Management for Food Security in the Highlands of Northern Thailand.” Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 5 (1): 30–37.
Fernández-Llamazares, Álvaro, Dana Lepofsky, Ken Lertzman, Chelsey Geralda Armstrong, Eduardo S. Brondizio, Michael C. Gavin, Phil O’B. Lyver, et al. 2021. “Scientists’ Warning to Humanity on Threats to Indigenous and Local Knowledge Systems.” Journal of Ethnobiology 41 (2): 144–169.
Dressler, Wolfram H., David Wilson, Jessica Clendenning, Rob Cramb, Rodney Keenan, Sango Mahanty, Thilde Bech Bruun, Ole Mertz, and Rodel D. Lasco. 2017. “The Impact of Swidden Decline on Livelihoods and Ecosystem Services in Southeast Asia: A Review of the Evidence from 1990 to 2015.” Ambio 46 (3): 291–310.
Poffenberger, Mark. 2006. “People in the Forest: Community Forestry Experiences From Southeast Asia.” International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development 5 (1): 57–69.
Santasombat, Yos. 2003. Biodiversity, Local Knowledge, and Sustainable Development. Chiang Mai: Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University.
Wittayapak, Chusak, and Ian G. Baird. 2018. “Communal Land Titling Dilemmas in Northern Thailand: from Community Forestry to Beneficial Yet Risky and Uncertain Options.” Land Use Policy 71 (1): 320–328.
de Lange, Emiel, Jocelyne S. Sze, James Allan, Scott Atkinson, Hollie Booth, Robert Fletcher, Munib Khanyari, and Omar Saif. 2023. “A Global Conservation Basic Income to Safeguard Biodiversity.” Nature Sustainability 6 (8): 1016–1023.
AIPP (Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact), Badan Registrasi Wilayah Adat, Cambodian Indigenous Peoples Alliance, Cambodia Indigenous Peoples Organization, Centre for Orang Asli Concerns, Center for Indigenous Peoples’ Research and Development, Federation of Community Forestry Users Nepal, Indigenous Media Network, Indigenous Peoples Foundation for Education and Environment, Indigenous Peoples Partnership, Indonesian Institute for Forest and Environment, Inter Mountain Peoples Education and Culture in Thailand Association, Jaringan Kerja Pemetaan Partisipatif, Land Conflict Watch, Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities, Network of Indigenous Peoples in Thailand, Non-Timber Forest Products - Exchange Programme, Partners of Community Organizations in Sabah Trust, Promotion of Indigenous and Nature Together, Rights and Resources Initiative, and Working Group ICCAs Indonesia. 2022. “Reconciling Conservation and Global Biodiversity Goals with Community Land Rights in Asia.” Rights and Resources Initiative Report. February. Accessed June 1, 2024: https://rightsandresources.org/wp-content/uploads/Asia-Conservation-Report.pdf
Benjamin, Akompab Ebainjuiayuk. 2010. “Women in Community Forestry Organizations: An Empirical Study in Thailand.” Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 25 (Supplement No. 9): 62–68.
Kongkaew, Chaturong, Jawanit Kittitornkool, Peter Vandergeest, and Kongkiat Kittiwatanawong. 2019. “Explaining Success in Community Based Mangrove Management: Four Coastal Communities along the Andaman Sea, Thailand.” Ocean and Coastal Management 178 (1): 104822.
Herse, Mark R., Phil O’B. Lyver, Andrew M. Gormley, Nigel J. Scott, Angus R. McIntosh, David Fletcher, and Jason M. Tylianakis. 2022. “A Demographic Model to Support Customary Management of a Culturally Important Waterfowl Species.” Ecology and Society 27 (4): 14.
Thammanu, Siriluck, Dorak Marod, Hee Han, Narayan Bhusal, Lamthai Asanok, Pipat Ketdee, Noppakoon Gaewsingha, Seunghyun Lee, and Joosang Chung. 2021. “The Influence of Environmental Factors on Species Composition and Distribution in a Community Forest in Northern Thailand.” Journal of Forestry Research 32 (2): 649–662.
Bhagwat, Shonil A., Katherin J. H. John B. Birkes, and Robert J. Whittaker. 2008. “Agroforestry: a Refuge for Tropical Biodiversity?” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23 (5): 261–267.
Ellis, Erle C., Nicolas Gauthier, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Rebecca Bliege Bird, Nicole Boivin, Sandra Díaz, Dorian Q. Fuller, et al. 2021. “People Have Shaped Most of Terrestrial Nature for At Least 12,000 years.” PNAS 118 (2): e2023483118.
Hirsch, Philip, Kevin Woods, Natalia Scurrah, and Michael B. Dwyer (eds.) 2022. Turning Land into Capital: Development and Dispossession in the Mekong Region. Seattle: Washington University Press.
Laovakul, Duangmanee. 2016. “Concentration of Land and Other Wealth in Thailand.” In Unequal Thailand: Aspects of Income, Wealth and Power, edited by Pasuk Phongpaichit, and Chris Baker, 32–42. Singapore: National University Singapore Press.
Podhisita, Chai. 2017. “Household Dynamics, the Capitalist Economy, and Agricultural Change in Rural Thailand.” Southeast Asian Studies 6 (2): 247–273.
Marks, Danny, and Michelle Ann Miller. 2022. “A Transboundary Political Ecology of Air Pollution: Slow Violence on Thailand’s Margins.” Environmental Policy and Governance 32 (4): 305–319.
Angkaew, Rongrong, Philip D. Round, Dusit Ngoprasert, Larkin A. Powell, Wich’yanan Limparungpatthanakij, and George A. Gale. 2022. “Collateral Damage from Agricultural Netting to Open-Country Bird Populations in Thailand.” Conservation Science and Practice 4 (11): e12810.
Otero, Iago, Katharine N. Farrell, Salvador Pueyo, Giorgos Kallis, Laura Kehoe, Helmut Haberl, Christopher Plutzar, et al. 2020. “Biodiversity Policy Beyond Economic Growth.” Conservation Letters 13 (4): e12713.
Schandl, Heinz, Marina Fischer-Kowalski, James West, Stefan Giljum, Monika Dittrich, Nina Eisenmenger, Arne Geschke, et al. 2018. “Global Material Flows and Resource Productivity: Forty Years of Evidence.” Journal of Industrial Ecology 22 (4): 827–838.
Ellis, Erle C., Nicolas Gauthier, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Rebecca Bliege Bird, Nicole Boivin, Sandra Díaz, Dorian Q. Fuller, et al. 2021. “People Have Shaped Most of Terrestrial Nature for At Least 12,000 years.” PNAS 118 (2): e2023483118.
Hughes, Alice C., Kévin Tougeron, Dominic A. Martin, Filippo Menga, Bruno H.P. Rosado, Sebastian Villasante, Shweta Madgulkar, et al. 2023. “Smaller Human Populations are neither a Necessary nor Sufficient Condition for Biodiversity Conservation.” Biological Conservation 277 (1): 109841.
Chiengkul, Prapimphan. 2018. “The Degrowth Movement: Alternative Economic Practices and Relevance to Developing Countries.” Alternatives: Local, Global, Political 42 (3): 81–95.
Hickel, Jason, Giorgos Kallis, Tim Jackson, Daniel W. O’Neill, Juliet B. Schor, Julia K. Steinberger, Peter A. Victor, and Diana Ürge-Vorsatz. 2022b. “Degrowth Can Work – Here’s How Science Can Help.” Nature 612 (7940): 400–403.
This work was funded by a Postdoctoral Fellowship Grant from King Mongkut’s University of Technology, Thonburi. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Notes on contributors
Mark R. Herse
Mark R. Herse recently completed a Postdoctoral Fellowship in the Conservation Ecology Program (Pilot Plant Development and Training Institute) at King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi. Previously, he completed his PhD in Ecology at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. His research interests are in wildlife ecology and management and the politics of environmental conservation.
Naruemon Tantipisanuh
Naruemon Tantipisanuh is an assistant professor and researcher in the Conservation Ecology Program (Pilot Plant Development and Training Institute) at King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi. Her research focuses on ecology of small carnivores (e.g. otters, felids), human-wildlife conflict, and landscape-scale conservation planning and management.
Wanlop Chutipong
Wanlop Chutipong is a researcher in the Conservation Ecology Program (Pilot Plant Development and Training Institute) at King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi. His research focuses on the ecology of mammals in protected areas and developed coastal areas of Thailand. He also has training and interests in political science and natural resource management.
George A. Gale
George A. Gale is an associate professor and head of the Conservation Ecology Program (School of Bioresources and Technology) at King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi. He has been teaching and conducting research there since 1998. His research interests are in wildlife ecology and management, particularly of birds and mammals of Southeast Asia.
![Sample our Area Studies journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5922/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Area-Studies.jpg"})