Variety and management of developmental conflicts: the case of the Olkaria IV geothermal energy project in Kenya

ABSTRACT

The development of geothermal energy installations generates varied conflicts in Kenya that often escalate because of improper management. Yet, these developmental project conflict dynamics remain poorly understood. To better understand the dynamics of these conflicts, quantitative and qualitative data were collected from the Olkaria IV project-affected persons (PAPs) household heads using questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. The qualitative data was arranged into socioeconomic, cultural, environmental and political themes and the proportion of respondents within each theme was calculated. The triggers for the conflicts included inadequate communication and participation in decision-making, unsatisfactory relocation logistics, and unfulfilled compensation promises. Also, the formulation and implementation of the resettlement action plan was inadequately negotiated with the PAPs. The effects of the conflicts on the PAPs’ livelihoods were severe. The conflicts were managed mainly through competition and avoidance strategies. Subsequent dissatisfaction on the part of the PAPs led to unrest that almost derailed the project. Planners need to be inclusive of the local community in the design of large development projects. Inclusiveness in planning would secure community buy-in, remove unrealistic pledges or expectations, and smoothen project implementation.

KEYWORDS:

• Conflict dynamics
• geothermal project implementation
• involuntary resettlement
• project affected persons
• sustainability

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to warmly thank the KenGen officials in Olkaria for approving the access to the study site as well as the project-affected persons at RAPland who generously cooperated with the study. We also wish to thank our research assistants, including Brian Parsambura, Francis Lopsekey Olekool, Monica Sakayian and David Kipayion, for their perseverance and passion throughout the field study. Prof. Karanja Njoroge and the village Elders are also acknowledged and appreciated for their support during this study. Thanks also to the anonymous reviewers and the informants who provided further insight and shared experiences that enabled us to meet the study objectives.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

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2. Pan et al., ‘Establishment of enhanced geothermal energy’.

3. Edelstein, ‘Cultural relativity of impact assessment’.

4. Kubota and Kaieda, ‘Determining barriers’; Kunze and Hertel, ‘Contested deep geothermal’.

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6. Madalina, ‘Conflict management’.

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8. Ibid.

9. Kron and Jensen, ‘From curse to opportunity’; Chueng, ‘Mediation’; Dhiaulhaq et al., ‘Transforming conflict’; Patel et al., ‘Predicting future conflict’; and Yurdi et al., ‘Conflict over forest and land’.

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14. Dütschke, ‘What drives local public acceptance’.

15. Eko, ‘Strategy of conflict resolution’.

16. Boele, ‘Ogoni’.

17. Ibid.

18. Schilling et al., ‘The nexus of oil, conflict’.

19. Neumann, ‘Extractive Industries’; Omondi et al., ‘Public Participation’; ‘Constitutional Petition on Mui Coal Basin Local’.

20. Omondi et al., ‘Public Participation’.

21. Mohammed et al., ‘Style of international project managers’.

22. Kenya Vision 2030 is the country’s development blueprint covering the period 2008 to 2030, that aims to transform Kenya into a newly industrialising ‘middle-income country providing a high-quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030.’ The Vision is based on the economic, social and the political pillars. The economic pillar aims to improve the prosperity of all Kenyans through an economic development programme, covering all the regions of Kenya, and aiming to achieve an average Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate of 10 per cent per annum beginning in 2012. The social pillar seeks to build a just and cohesive society with social equity in a clean and secure environment, and the political pillar aims to realise a democratic political system founded on issue-based politics that respects the rule of law, and protects the rights and freedoms of every individual in Kenyan society.

23. Schade, ‘Kenya Olkaria IV’.

24. Ibid.

25. Camu and Santiago, ‘Social development’; Chavot et al., ‘Social shaping’; Karytas et al., ‘Towards social acceptance’; Pellizzone et al., ‘Geothermal energy’; Schade, ‘Kenya Olkaria IV’; and Vargas, ‘Understanding social acceptance’.

26. Unruh et al., ‘Linkages Between Large-scale’.

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28. Schnaiberg et al., ‘The treadmill of production’.

29. Fenn and Speck, ‘Conflict and dispute in construction’.

30. Ibid.

31. GIBB Africa, ‘Olkaria IV, Resettlement Action Plan’.

32. Schnaiberg et al., ‘The treadmill of production’.

33. Kunze and Hertel, ‘Contested deep geothermal’.

34. GIBB Africa, ‘Olkaria IV, Resettlement Action Plan’; and Schade, ‘Kenya Olkaria IV’.

35. Sena, ‘Renewable energy project’.

36. Abad, ‘Conclusions Report’; and Schade, ‘Kenya Olkaria IV’.

37. GIBB Africa, ‘KenGen Olkaria IV Domes’.

38. Schade, ‘Kenya Olkaria IV’.

39. Hodgson, ‘Women as children’.

40. Gentleman, ‘Computer Science and Data Analysis Series’.

41. Bazeley and Kristi, ‘Qualitative data analysis with NVivo’.

42. Elders’ FGDs, RAPland, 25 May 2019.

43. Women’s FGDs, RAPland, 25 May 2019.

44. Interview, Female PAP at RAPland, 3 June 2019.

45. Interview, Male PAP at RAPland, 27 May 2019.

46. Interview, Female PAP at RAPland, 23 May 2019.

47. Interview, Male PAP at RAPland, 21 May 2019.

48. Interview, Male PAP at RAPland, 3 June 2019.

49. Interview, Female PAP at RAPland, 21 May 2019.

50. Interview, Male PAP at RAPland, 22 May 2019.

51. Youth FGDs, RAPland, 25 May 2019.

52. De Jesus, ‘Social issues raised’.

53. Hughes and Rogei, ‘Feeling the heat’.

54. Chavot et al., ‘Social shaping’; and Pellizzone et al., ‘Geothermal energy’.

55. Schade, ‘Kenya Olkaria IV’.

56. Malley et al., ‘Linking perceived land’.

57. Mensah and Okyere, ‘Mining, Environment and Community Conflicts’; and Schilling et al., ‘The nexus of oil, conflict’.

58. De Jesus, ‘Social issues raised.’

59. Ibid.

60. Ibid

61. Njeru, ‘Culture and conflict’.

62. Schade, ‘Kenya Olkaria IV’.

63. Njeru, ‘Culture and conflict’.

64. Hughes and Rogei, ‘Feeling the heat’.

65. Melubo and Lovelock, ‘Living Inside a UNESCO World Heritage Site’; Ogwang et al., ‘Impacts of the oil boom.’

66. Hodgson, ‘Women as children’.

67. Grillos, ‘Women participation’.

68. Shortall and Kharrazi, ‘Cultural factors’; and Soini and Birkeland, ‘Exploring the scientific’.

69. World Bank, ‘Environmental and Social Framework’.

70. Mariita, ‘The impact of large-scale’.

71. Kron and Jensen, ‘From curse to opportunity’; and Boele et al., ‘Shell, Nigeria and the Ogoni’.

72. Boele, ‘Ogoni’.

73. Hedström and Smith, ‘Overcoming political exclusion’.

74. GIBB Africa, ‘Olkaria IV, Resettlement Action Plan’; and Schade, ‘Kenya Olkaria IV’.

75. Schilling et al., ‘A local to global perspective’; Schilling et al., ‘For better or worse’; and Schilling et al., ‘The nexus of oil, conflict’.

76. Vanclay, ‘Project-induced displacement’.

77. Cloke et al., ‘Resolving conflicts’.

78. Boele, ‘Ogoni’.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Lilian Namuma S. Kong’ani

Lilian Namuma S. Kong’ani, Tutorial Fellow, University of Nairobi, Wangari Maathai Institute for Peace and Environmental Studies, (UoN-WMI). Holder of Master of Science degree in Environmental Governance and Bachelor of Science degree in Environmental Studies (Community Development). She is currently pursuing a doctoral degree in Environmental Governance and Management, University of Nairobi.

Raphael G. Wahome

Prof. Raphael G. Wahome, Associate Professor, Department of Animal Production, UoN. Prof. Wahome is an experienced lecturer on livestock production systems. He emphasises the importance of a variety of people/disciplines thinking and working together to solve societal problems, thus building capacities for practical living and the well-being, peace, and tranquillity of global societies. Email address: [email protected]

Thuita Thenya

Dr. Thuita Thenya, Senior Lecturer, UoN-WMI. His areas of specialisation and research interests are Biogeography and wetlands ecology, spatial analysis, participatory forest management, mobile telephony data capture and management. He has a wealthy of experience in assessment of best practice in natural resources. He is also trained in conflict mediation. Email address: [email protected].