Regional security complex: The Boko Haram menace and socio-economic development crises in the Sahel

ABSTRACT

Regional development and stability in many parts of the Global South is threatened by violent conflicts – deep-rooted in complex ‘geo-politico-economic challenges’. This reflects the causality of Boko Haram threats and security-development crises in the Sahel. To extrapolate the patterns of insecurity and their effects on peace and development in the region, a thematic analysis of empirical and secondary data was conducted using the Regional Security Complex Theory (RSCT). This expatiates on the role of actors, geopolitics (external) interventions, the environment, and resources in the Sahel’s complex security-development milieu. The study deduced that escalation of conflicts and negative consequences of interventions exacerbate states’ fragility and human insecurity, amidst displacement, destruction, and impairment of livelihoods and regional resilience capacities across the Sahel. Therefore, it recommends a holistic regional security-development mechanism, that is evidence-based, to sustainably address the root causes and effects of Sahel’s insecurity and socio-economic predicaments.

KEYWORDS:

• Boko haram
• conflict
• development
• intervention
• regional security
• Sahel

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

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2. Buckley, ‘World Reactions to September 11 and the War on Terror’; Combs, Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century; Cronin, ‘Behind the Curve: Globalisation and International Terrorism’.

3. Ajayi, ‘Boko Haram and Terrorism in Nigeria’.

4. Ibid.

5. Trimarchi, ‘Why is the Sahel Shifting’.

6. Hall, ‘Conflict for Resources: Water in the Lake Chad Basin’; Onuoha, ‘Environmental Degradation, Livelihood and Conflicts’; Magrin and De Montclos, Crisis and Development: The Lake Chad Region and Boko Haram’.

7. Gusikit and Lar, ‘Water Scarcity and the Impending Water-Related Conflicts in Nigeria’ ; World Food Programme, ‘Nigeria Situation Report’.

8. Benaim and Hanna, ‘Water Wars on the Nile’; Brooks, ‘Fresh Water in the Middle East and North Africa’.

9. Rouppert, ‘The European Strategy for the Sahel’; Lebovich, ‘Halting Ambition: EU Migration and Security Policy in the Sahel’.

10. Agbiboa, ‘The Social Dynamics of the ‘Nigerian Taliban’; Akinola, ‘Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria’.

11. Sulemana and Azeez, ‘Rethinking Islamism in Western Africa’; Comolli, Boko Haram: Nigeria’s Islamist Insurgency; MacEachern, Searching for Boko Haram: A History of Violence in Central Africa.

12. Comolli, ‘Boko Haram: Nigeria’s Islamist Insurgency’; Sulemana and Azeez, ‘Rethinking Islamism in Western Africa’.

13. Agbiboa, ‘The Social Dynamics of the ‘Nigerian Taliban’; Akinola, ‘Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria’.

14. MacEachern, Searching for Boko Haram: A History of Violence in Central Africa.

15. Bamidele, ‘Nigeria’s Terrorist Threat’; Omale, ‘Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Nigeria’; Smith, ‘Boko Haram: Inside Nigeria’s Unholy War’.

16. Sulemana and Azeez, ‘Rethinking Islamism in Western Africa’; Walther and Leuprecht, ‘Mapping and Deterring Violent Extremist Networks in North-West Africa’; D’Amato, ‘Terrorists Going Transnational’.

17. Walther and Leuprecht, ‘Mapping and Deterring Violent Extremist Networks in North-West Africa’; D’Amato, ‘Terrorists Going Transnational’.

18. Badewa, ‘Dynamics of Human Security and Regional Social and Economic Development’; David, ‘Addressing the Paradox’; International Crisis Group, ‘What Role for the Multinational Joint Task Force in Fighting Boko Haram’; International Crisis Group, ‘North-Eastern Nigeria and Conflict’s Humanitarian Fallout’; Omenma, et al., ‘A Decade of Boko Haram Activities’.

19. Omenma et al., ‘A Decade of Boko Haram Activities’.

20. Ibid.

21. Badewa, ‘Dynamics of Human Security and Regional Social and Economic Development’.

22. Ugwueze et al., ‘Operation Safe Corridor Programme’.

23. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

24. Griffin, ‘Operation Barkhane and Boko Haram’; ICG, ‘Chad: Between Ambition and Fragility’; MacEachern, Searching for Boko Haram’.

25. MacEachern, ‘Searching for Boko Haram’.

26. Marchal, ‘An Emerging Military Power in Central Africa’.

27. Berlingozzi and Stoddard, ‘Assessing Misaligned Counterinsurgency Practice in Niger and Nigeria’.

28. MacEachern, ‘Searching for Boko Haram’; Marchal, ‘An Emerging Military Power in Central Africa?’; ICG, ‘What Role for the Multinational Joint Task Force in Fighting Boko Haram?’.

29. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

30. Buzan and Waever, ‘Security Complexes: A Theory of Regional Security’.

31. Ibid.

32. Buzan, ‘Regional Security Complex Theory in the Post-Cold War World’.

33. Ibid.

34. Buzan and Waever, ‘Security Complexes: A Theory of Regional Security’; Buzan and Hansen, ‘International Security Studies’.

35. Williams and Krause, ‘Towards Critical Security Studies’; Buzan and Hansen, ‘International Security Studies’.

36. Roberts, ‘Humanitarian Action in War: Aid, Protection and Impartiality in a Policy Vacuum’.

37. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

38. Wolff, ‘The Regional Dimensions of State Failure’.

39. Khong, ‘Human Security: A Shotgun Approach to Alleviating Human Misery?’.

40. Ayoob, ‘Regional Security in the Third World’; Buzan and Waever, ‘Security Complexes: A Theory of Regional Security’.

41. Hettne, “Beyond the ‘New’ Regionalism”.

42. Buzan and Waever, ‘Security Complexes: A Theory of Regional Security’.

43. Buzan and Hansen, ‘International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War’.

44. Institute for Economics and Peace, ‘Global Terrorism Index 2019’, 18.

45. Ibid.

46. Buzan, ‘Regional Security Complex Theory in the Post-Cold War World’.

47. Buzan and Waever, ‘Security Complexes: A Theory of Regional Security’.

48. Agbiboa, ‘The Social Dynamics of the ‘Nigerian Taliban’; Akinola, ‘Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria’.

49. Badewa, ‘Dynamics of Human Security and Regional Social and Economic Development’.

50. Interview with key informant, Nigerian Army Cantonment, Maiduguri, Nigeria, 8 January 2018.

51. Interview with key informant, Borno Police Command, Maiduguri, Nigeria, 11 January 2018.

52. Williams and Krause, ‘Towards Critical Security Studies’; Buzan and Hansen, ‘International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War’.

53. Interview with key informant, UNHCR, Maiduguri, Nigeria,14 January 2018”.

54. Interview with key informant, National Emergency Agency, Maiduguri, Nigeria, 14 January 2018.

55. Buzan and Waever, “Security Complexes: A Theory of Regional Security”; Buzan and Hansen, “International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War: The Traditionalists”.

56. Williams and Krause, ‘Towards Critical Security Studies’; Buzan and Hansen, ‘International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War’.

57. FAO, ‘Lake Chad BAsin Crisis Response’; Committee on the North-East Initiative, 2016.

58. Ibid., 3.

59. Ibid., 2.

60. Marte, ‘Women, Children Abducted, Killed in Nigeria’s Borno State’.

61. Interview with key informant, MNJTF headquarters, N’Djamena, Chad, 16 February 2018.

62. Interview with key informant, Nigerian Army cantonment, Maiduguri, 8 January 2018.

63. Williams and Krause, ‘Towards Critical Security Studies’; Buzan and Hansen, ‘International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War’.

64. Buzan, ‘Regional Security Complex Theory in the Post-Cold War World’.

65. Naira is the official currency of Nigeria, 100 kobo equals ₦1 Naira. ₦ 415 (NGN) equals $1 (one) United States Dollar, as at March 2022.

66. Interview with key informant, Muna Motor Park Maiduguri, Nigeria,13 January 2018.

67. Author’s observation, Research Field Trip to the Lake Chad Basin Region, January – March 2018.

68. Interview with key informant, Borno Chamber of Commerce, Maiduguri, Nigeria, 12 January 2018.

69. Buzan and Waever, ‘Security Complexes: A Theory of Regional Security’.

70. Badewa, ‘Dynamics of Human Security and Regional Social and Economic Development’.

71. Taub, ‘Lake Chad: The World’s Most Complex Humanitarian Disaster’.

72. Interview with key informant, Chadian Army, N’Djamena, Chad, 18 February 2018.

73. Interview with focus group, Farmers Association, Maiduguri, Nigeria, 18 January 2018; Interview with focus group, Farmers and Fishers Union, Guité, Chad, 20 February 2018.

74. Interview with key informant, University of Maiduguri Nigeria, 5 January 2018; Interview with focus group, Cattle Breeders Association, Maiduguri, Nigeria, 4 February 2018.

75. Interview with key informant, MNJTF, Maiduguri, 24 January 2018, N’Djamena, 15 February 2018.

76. Badewa, ‘Dynamics of Human Security and Regional Social and Economic Development’.

77. Ugwueze et al., ‘Operation Safe Corridor Programme’; Berlingozzi and Stoddard, ‘Assessing Misaligned Counterinsurgency Practice in Niger and Nigeria’.

78. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

79. Berlingozzi and Stoddard, ‘Assessing Misaligned Counterinsurgency Practice in Niger and Nigeria’.

80. IRIN, ‘Shifting Relationships, Growing Threats: Who’s Who of Insurgent Groups in the Sahel’.

81. Interview with key informant, Ministry of Agriculture, Diffa, Niger, 13 March 2018.

82. The Nigerian Army, ‘Nigeria Army Security Report: Boko Haram and Insurgencies in North-East Nigeria’.

83. Ibid.

84. Roberts, ‘Humanitarian Action in War: Aid, Protection and Impartiality in a Policy Vacuum’.

85. Interview with key informant, Humanitarian Officer, Diffa, Niger, 13 March 2018.

86. Interview with key informant, NGO/Aid worker, Maiduguri, Nigeria12 January 2018.

87. Trimarchi, ‘Why is the Sahel Shifting’, 2.

88. UN-OCHA, ‘The Sahel Info Sheet’, 3.

89. Essoungou, ‘The Sahel: One Region Many Crisis’.

90. Gusikit and Lar, ‘Water Scarcity and the Impending Water-Related Conflicts in Nigeria’; Hall, ‘Conflict for Resources’; Onuoha, ‘Environmental Degradation, Livelihood and Conflicts’.

91. Lake Chad Basin Commission, ‘Proceedings of the LCBC on the Implication of BHT on the Lake Chad Basin’; Onuoha, ‘Environmental Degradation, Livelihood and Conflicts’.

92. Essoungou, ‘The Sahel: One Region Many Crisis’; Trimarchi, ‘Why is the Sahel Shifting’.

93. Essoungou, ‘The Sahel: One Region Many Crisis’; IRIN, ‘Shifting Relationships, Growing Threats’.

94. Griffin, ‘Operation Barkhane and Boko Haram’; IRIN, “Shifting Relationships, Growing Threats: Who’s Who of Insurgent Groups in the Sahel”.

95. D’Amato, ‘Terrorists Going Transnational’; Sulemana and Azeez, ‘Rethinking Islamism in Western Africa’.

96. UN-OCHA, ‘The Sahel Info Sheet’.

97. Akinola, ‘Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria’; Agbiboa, ‘The Social Dynamics of the ‘Nigerian Taliban’.

98. Essoungou, ‘The Sahel: One Region Many Crisis’.

99. Buzan and Hansen, ‘International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War: The Traditionalists’.

100. Raleigh and Dowd, ‘Governance and Conflict in the Sahel’s ‘Ungoverned Space’; Snorek, ‘How Oil Exploration is adding to Mali’s security woes’.

101. Snorek, ‘How Oil Exploration is adding to Mali’s security woes’.

102. Destrijcker and Diouara, ‘A Forgotten Community’, 2.

103. Snorek, ‘How Oil Exploration is adding to Mali’s Security woes’.

104. The Economist, ‘The Resource Curse: How West Africa’s Gold Rush is Funding Jihadists’.

105. Ibid.

106. Rupesinghe, ‘The Joint Force of the G5 Sahel – An Appropriate Response to Combat Terrorism?’.

107. Raleigh and Dowd, ‘Governance and Conflict in the Sahel’s ‘Ungoverned Space’.

108. Buzan, ‘Regional Security Complex Theory in the Post-Cold War World’.

109. Buzan and Waever, ‘Security Complexes: A Theory of Regional Security’.

110. Roberts, ‘Humanitarian Action in War: Aid, Protection and Impartiality in a Policy Vacuum’.

111. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

112. Beck, ‘U.S. Military Presence and Activity in Africa: Sahel Region’.

113. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

114. Beck, ‘U.S. Military Presence and Activity in Africa: Sahel Region’.

115. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’; Berlingozzi and Stoddard, ‘Assessing Misaligned Counterinsurgency Practice in Niger and Nigeria’.

116. Berlingozzi and Stoddard, ‘Assessing Misaligned Counterinsurgency Practice in Niger and Nigeria’; Badewa, ‘Dynamics of Human Security’.

117. Interview with key informant, Nigerien Army, Diffa, Niger,12 March 2018.

118. Rouppert, ‘The European Strategy for the Sahel’.

119. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

120. Essoungou, ‘The Sahel: One Region Many Crisis’; IRIN, ‘Shifting Relationships, Growing Threats’.

121. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

122. Griffin, ‘Operation Barkhane and Boko Haram’.

123. Rupesinghe, ‘The Joint Force of the G5 Sahel – An Appropriate Response to Combat Terrorism?’.

124. European Union, ‘The European Union’s Partnership with the G5 Sahel Countries’; Lebovich, ‘Halting Ambition: EU Migration and Security Policy in the Sahel’.

125. Griffin, ‘Operation Barkhane and Boko Haram’; Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

126. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

127. Interview with key informant, Ministry of Agriculture, Diffa, Niger, 13 March 2018.

128. Interview with key informant, Lake Chad Basin Commission, N’Djamena, Chad, 12 February 2018.

129. Rouppert, ‘The European Strategy for the Sahel’; Lebovich, ‘Halting Ambition: EU Migration and Security Policy in the Sahel’.

130. Ibid.

131. Ugwueze, Ngwu, and Onuoha, ‘Operation Safe Corridor Programme’.

132. Badewa, ‘Dynamics of Human Security and Regional Social and Economic Development’.

133. ICG, ‘North-Eastern Nigeria and Conflict’s Humanitarian Fallout’; ICG, ‘Chad: Between Ambition and Fragility’.

134. ICG, ‘North-Eastern Nigeria and Conflict’s Humanitarian Fallout’; Badewa, ‘Dynamics of Human Security’.

135. Badewa, ‘Dynamics of Human Security and Regional Social and Economic Development’; Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

136. Buzan, ‘Regional Security Complex Theory in the Post-Cold War World’.

137. Harmon, ‘Securitisation Initiatives in the Sahara-Sahel Region’.

138. Rupesinghe, ‘The Joint Force of the G5 Sahel – An Appropriate Response to Combat Terrorism?’.

139. Badewa, ‘Dynamics of Human Security’.

140. Odobo et al., ‘Analysis of ECOWAS Institutional Framework for Conflict Management’; Lewis and Shinoda, ‘Operationalising Early Warning for Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding in West Africa’.

141. Essoungou, ‘The Sahel: One Region Many Crisis’.

142. Berlingozzi and Stoddard, ‘Assessing Misaligned Counterinsurgency Practice in Niger and Nigeria’.

143. Food and Agriculture Organization. “Lake Chad Basin Crisis Response Strategy (2017–2019)”.

Additional information

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Adeyemi Saheed Badewa

Adeyemi Saheed Badewa is an interdisciplinary researcher in international studies, history, and global development. He teaches international relations, history, development studies, comparative politics, and research methodology. His specialisations include peace and conflict, human security, regional development, migration, transnational governance, and transformative justice. He is currently affiliated with the Institute for Social Development, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town South Africa, where he also obtained a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in International Development Studies. He was a recipient of the Queen Elizabeth Scholarship (QES) 2020 at the Balsillie School of International Affairs, Canada. Adeyemi is an associate editor of Irinkerindo: A Journal of African Migration (IJAM).