Cross-border cooperation as a method of conflict management: a case study in the Sulu-Sulawesi Sea

ABSTRACT

This paper aims to analyse the impacts of cross-border activities and cooperation in the conflict management process in the Sulu-Sulawesi Sea. Using a qualitative approach with a case study method, this research collected longitudinal data from 2016 to 2022 through observation, interviews, and literature reviews. The results indicate that inter-state conflict can be managed through cooperation in political-economy and socio-cultural aspects instead of defence and security concerns. Legal and traditional cross-border cooperation have played important roles in conflict management by reducing violence and the practice of transnational crimes, increasing the welfare of transnational communities, and building good relations among cross-border actors. Several factors have supported these roles, prominently cultural proximity and trade interdependence which encourage diaspora and business networking. However, this research also identifies illegal cross-border activities that have negative impacts on conflict management by increasing tensions and disrupting regional stability.

KEYWORDS:

• Conflict management
• cross-border cooperation
• Indonesia-Malaysia relations
• trade interdependence
• Sulu-Sulawesi Sea

Acknowledgements

Sandy Nur Ikfal Raharjo, Tri Nuke Pudjiastuti, and Hayati Nufus are the main contributors of this article. The authors would like to thank Awani Irewati, Indriana Kartini, Agus Rubianto Rahman, and Anta Maulana as the other members of this research team for their valuable comments to this paper, as well as Abdul Rahim Anuar from Malaysia and Rolando Talampas from the Philippines for their helps in collecting data for this research. We also would like to thanks all the informants from government institutions, business councils and chamber of commerce, university-based academicians, journalists, and people of North Kalimantan and South Sulawesi of Indonesia, Sabah of Malaysia, and Mindanao of the Philippines.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. Deiana et al., Cross-Border Cooperation.

2. Guo, Cross-Border Resource Management; Lee and Forss, Dispute Resolution.

3. United Nations Development Fund, ‘Cross-border Cooperation’.

4. Amling et al., Stable Seas; Parameswaran, ‘Confronting Threats’; Storey, ‘Trilateral Security Cooperation’; Yaoren et al., Maritime Malice.

5. Febriana, ‘Indonesia’s Efforts’.

6. BPS, Sulawesi Utara Province in Figures; Department of Statistics Malaysia, key Findings Population; PhilAtlas, ‘Mindanao’.

7. Wellensteen, Understanding Conflict Resolution.

8. Huth, Standing your Ground; Lund, Preventing Violent Conflicts.

9. Forbes, Indonesia’s Delimited Maritime.

10. Raharjo, ‘Negotiating Indonesia’s Maritime’.

11. Mercene, ‘Sabah: PHL’s “lost” Land’.

12. Guritno, ‘Ministry of Foreign Affairs’.

13. Garcia, ‘Military Foils’.

14. Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict, Protecting the Sulu-Sulawesi Seas.

15. Miller, A Glossary of Terms.

16. Jeong, Understanding Conflict.

17. Irewati et al., Border Dispute Settlement.

18. Miller, A Glossary of Terms.

19. Jeong, Understanding Conflict.

20. Webel and Galtung, Handbook of Peace.

21. Jeong, Understanding Conflict.

22. Perkmann, ‘Cross-border Regions’.

23. Gerfert, Cross-Border Cooperation.

24. Miller, A Glossary of Terms.

25. Jeong, Understanding Conflict.

26. Lee and Forss, Dispute Resolution.

27. Wiegand and Powell, ‘Unexpected Companions’.

28. Raharjo et al., Developing Connectivity.

29. Thao, ‘Joint Development’; Huth, Standing your Ground.

30. Guo, Cross-Border Management. See also Ohanyan, ‘On money and memory’, which states that weak cross-border governance can undermine constructive engagement between the conflicting parties.

31. Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict, Protecting the Sulu-Sulawesi Seas.

32. ReCAAP, Piracy and Armed Robbery.

33. ICC-International Maritime Bureau, Piracy and Armed Robbery.

34. Interview with Tarakan Navy Main Base, Tarakan, 16 June 2021.

35. Consulate General of the Republic of Indonesia in Davao City, ‘Official and staff’.

36. Consulate of Malaysia in Pontianak, ‘List of Malaysian Consulate’.

37. ReCAAP, Piracy and Armed Robbery.

38. Raharjo, ‘An Introduction’.

39. Institute for Development Studies, Sabah Development.

40. National Economic and Development Authority, Mindanao Strategic Development.

41. Amling et al., Stable Seas.

42. The Asia Foundation, Trade in the Sulu.

43. Based on data from Nunukan Class II Immigration Office, 18 June 2021.

44. Razak et al., ‘Migrant Workers’.

45. BIMP-EAGA, Implementation Blueprint.

46. Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs, ‘Roro Sea Connectivity’.

47. Ibid.

48. Warren, The Global Economy.

49. Taberdo, ‘Work-life Experiences’.

50. Allerton, ‘Statelessness and the Lives of the Children’.

51. Ministry of Home Affairs of Indonesia, ‘The Indonesian-Malaysian Governments’.

52. Hadi, ‘The dispute of Ambalat’.

53. Irewati et al., Thailand-Cambodia Border.

54. Ambarina et al., ‘Legal Status of MoU’.

55. Dewi, ‘The Use of Multitrack’.

56. ReCAAP, Piracy and Armed Robbery.

57. The Vibes, ‘Bali-style bombings’.

58. Postings, ‘Passport to jihad’.

59. Zeng, ‘Cross-border Supply Chain’.

60. Guo, Cross-Border Resource Management.

61. Jeong, Understanding Conflict.

62. Miller, A Glossary of Terms.

63. Jeong, Understanding Conflict.

64. Lee and Forss, Dispute Resolution.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional Republik Indonesia and Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan.

Notes on contributors

Sandy Nur Ikfal Raharjo

Sandy Nur Ikfal Raharjo is a researcher at the Research Center for Politics, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional (BRIN), Jakarta, Indonesia. Currently, he is also a doctoral student at the Department of Southeast Asian Studies, Universiti Malaya, Malaysia. His research focuses on border issues in Southeast Asia including border dispute and conflict, cross-border cooperation, subregional cooperation, and cross-border natural resource management. He can be reached at [email protected].

Tri Nuke Pudjiastuti

Tri Nuke Pudjiastuti is a professor research at the Research Center for Politics, Badan Riset dan Inovasi nasional (BRIN), Jakarta, Indonesia. Previously, she served as the Deputy of Social Sciences and Humanities at the Indonesian Institute of Sciences. Her experience in trafficking and smuggling issues has also given her an insight into irregular migration and refugee in Indonesia and Southeast Asia, particularly at the level of ASEAN.She also actively involves in the Asia Dialogue on Forced Migration (ADFM) since 2015. She can be reached at [email protected].

Hayati Nufus

Hayati Nufus is a junior researcher at the Research Center for Politics, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional (BRIN), Jakarta, Indonesia. Her research interest includes the dynamics of China’s politics and Foreign Policy, especially towards Indonesia and ASEAN member countries. She also works on the study cross-border cooperation and subregional cooperation. She can be reached at [email protected].