Hegemonic masculinities and femininities in food industry packaging

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is to analyze the formal and graphic elements around the hegemonic masculinities and femininities of the packaging of industrial bakery and biscuit products aimed at children and young people. A content analysis was conducted on 10 of the most widely consumed brands of industrial bakery and biscuit products in Spain and widely present on the international market. In addition, a scale of dominant masculinity was developed as a tool to analyze the most egalitarian narratives on the packaging. The results suggest that there are unequal narratives linked to hegemonic masculinity and femininity. The use of blue and yellow, the latter not having a traditional link to masculinity, is related to men in terms of aggressiveness and bravery stereotypes. The women represented on packaging with these same colours are presented in terms of sympathy or kindness, as well as stereotypes connected to beauty. The products contain homogeneous stereotypes and are associated more with men than with women. However, 2 out of 10 brands do not insert characters linked to sexual attributes or gender stereotypes. Therefore, our findings suggest that hegemonic gender scripts are inscribed on packaging less obviously than in other traditional media.

KEYWORDS:

• Hegemonic masculinity
• gender stereotypes
• packaging
• industrial bakery
• biscuit products

Introduction

Symbolic representations and schemes of masculinity and femininity in marketing are ubiquitous in consumer societies. Although many would argue that gendered images on biscuits packets are harmless and innocuous, research shows that stereotypical messages on food packaging feature women who, in general, often take on the role of a mother in charge of the family’s well-being (Gabriela Safta 2015). Girls and boys are exposed to said messages in their own home from an early age before the influence of school or other cultural products. The long-term course of this exposure gains strength in adults and consistently reflects the predominant hegemonic values in their contexts. Therefore, the younger audience is a priority for the food industry and they are also generally the group that mainly consumes industrial bakery goods (Hassan Vatanparast, Naorin Islam, Rashmi Prakash Patil, Mojtaba Shafiee, Jessica Smith, and Susan Whiting 2019; Junxiu Liu, Yujin Lee, Renata Micha, Li Yan, and Dariush Mozaffarian 2021; Sarah Bel, Karin A.A. De Ridder, Thérésa Lebacq, Cloë Ost, Eveline Teppers, Koenraad Cuypers, and Jean Tafforeau 2019). Although there is evidence of a trend towards increased consumption of sugary and high-calorie products, taxation of these products is effective in discouraging their consumption has also been observed in countries such as the United States (Hannah Lawman, Sarah Bleich, Jiali Yan, Sophia Hua, Caitlin Lowery, Ana Peterhans, Michael LeVasseur et al. 2020). Brands offer people meaningful materials (colours, shapes, etc.) to express their identity (Dittmar Helga 1992; Grohmann Bianca 2009; Lunt Peter K. and Livingstone Sonia M. 1992). Organizations create brands with masculine or feminine personality traits for their consumers to relate to them as equals, even as extensions of themselves (Russell W. Belk 2007; Susan Fournier 1998). This is because it is known that people tend to describe themselves and others through masculinity and femininity traits already typified and assumed by the majority (Richard Lippa 2005). In order to materialize this, they use, for example, male spokespeople or characters if the product is aimed at men or use pastel colours for those aimed at women (Grohmann 2009).

In this sense, Anne-Jorunn Berg and Merete Lie (1995) defined the concept of gender script in reference to technological objects. They have explained that, in principle, objects are gendered and contain information about culture and how changes in culture can occur. Today, different gender scripts are inscribed on the products in various ways and are likely to represent and reinforce different characteristics of people (Nelly Oudshoorn, Ann Rudinow Saetnan, and Merete Lie 2002). Gender stereotypes understood as cognitive constructs that are assigned to a group of people in order to identify them as a group (Richard D. Ashmore and Frances K. Del Boca 1981) and marketing representations have been the object of research since the seventies (Del I. Hawkins and Kenneth A. Coney 1976; William J. Lundstrom and Donald Sciglimpaglia 1977), especially on the television (Jeanne Marecek, Jane Allyn Piliavin, Ellen Fitzsimmons, Elizabeth C. Krogh, Elizabeth Leader, and Bonnie Trudell 1978; Joseph R. Dominick and Gail E. Rauch 1972; Kenneth C. Schneider and Sharon Barich Schneider 1979; Leslie Zebrowitz-McArthur and Beth Gabrielle Resko 1975; William J. O’Donnell and Karen J. O’Donnell 1978). However, this has not happened with packaging, as the most studied field related to the food industry has been unconscious processes and consumer perception (Anna Fenko, Henriët Lotterman, and Mirjam Galetzka 2016; Aradhna Krishna 2010; Nadine Karnal, Casparus J. A. Machiels, Ulrich R. Orth, and Robert Mai 2016; Iris van Ooijen, Marieke L. Fransen, Peeter W. J. Verlegh, and Edith G. Smit 2017; Taku Togawa, Jaewoo Park, Hiroaki Ishii, and Xiaoyan Deng 2019). There is limited literature on the representations of gender at the formal and graphic level on products (Christine Campbell, Craig Owen, and Joanne O’Prey 2021; Isabelle Jonveaux 2015; Magdalena Petersson McIntyre 2018) and, to our knowledge, there is no literature on ultra-processed food products in this sense. This type of food is characterized by low quality ingredients because of the priority given to cost-effectiveness and is presented as appetizing and ready for quick consumption (Carlos A. Monteiro, Geoffrey Cannon, Renata B. Levy, Jean-Claude Moubarac, Maria L. Louzada, Fernanda Rauber, Neha Khandpur, et al. 2019).

Hegemonic masculinity is a concept included in many fields. However, in principle, it was defined as a practice exercised by men to dominate women that shapes the ideal way of being a man (Raewyn Connell 1987, 2003). Thus, these men are superior to other men and women, placing the latter in a subordinate position. Regarding men in advertising, these concepts are articulated in discourses emphasizing superiority through physical strength, violent behaviour and the importance of the role of work, heterosexuality as the dominant orientation, among others (Rosemary Ricciardelli, Kimberley Clow, Philip White 2010). In the case of women, the messages are based on the subordination and sexualization of their bodies as objects of desire for men (generally young and slender), occupying hidden or less important positions than men, infantilized and sometimes placed in positions of defencelessness (Connell 1987; Erving Goffman 1979).

The aim of this study is to analyze the formal and graphic elements around the hegemonic masculinities and femininities of the packaging of industrial bakery and biscuit products aimed at children and young people. Our intention is to contribute to studies on feminism, based on a critical analysis of packaging supported by scientific literature.

Conceptual framework

Symbolic resources shaping the food industry packaging

Packaging communicates a message through symbolic elements that go beyond the usefulness of the product (Jean Baudrillard 2017). The created narrative universe can establish strong links with the experiences and memories of the consumer (Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron 1990). Different studies have observed that visual elements on packaging can influence attitudes towards products and the perception of them (Gwen Bouvier and Ariel Chen 2021; Mohammed Alhamdi 2020).

In this sense, the use of text, fun elements, different characters and promotions can be useful for brands to increase consumer loyalty (Charlene Elliot and Emily Truman 2020). Graphic elements are more important in brands’ communication strategies that prioritize a medium created by the company itself, such as packaging (Belk 2007). Packaging is the mediator that identifies the product (Robert L. Underwood and Noreen M. Klein 2002) and they influence ideas on the product’s flavour, smell, appearance, among others (Allan Paivio 2010; Luca Cian 2012). For instance, if the packaging references price or special conditions, young people can be motivated to impulse buy (Mehmet Seckin Aday and Ugur Yener 2014).

The use of colours can also reinforce ideas and generate strong synergies with gender. The most obvious case is pink that is related to femininity, which contributes to the repetition of the gender norm (Petersson McIntyre 2018). Furthermore, the use of green has been shown by environmentally friendly brands to decrease the perception of masculinity in men (Felix Reto, Eva M. González, Raquel Castaño, Lorena Carrete, and Richard T. Gretz 2021).

Regarding shapes, there is evidence that packaging for bars and drinks that highlight health benefits has angled shapes and share technical messages when aimed at men. However, those aimed at women have round, narrow shapes and include emotional messages (Bouvier and Chen 2021).

In order to strengthen the relation between brands and people, the industry uses socially accepted standards to segment and shape advertising strategies (David Ogilvy 2013). These types of strategies consist of a plan to catch the attention of a potential customer and get them to buy the product or service offered by a certain brand (Saeideh Samadzad and Mirabbas Hashemi 2021). In order to do so, they use the aforementioned resources, to compose an attractive message in which it is possible to reflect the desired status, belonging to a group of people or even the exclusivity of a product they perceive or to which they aspire according to social roles (Heribert Gierl and Verena Huettl 2010).

Narratives and representation of gender in packaging: masculinities and femininities

Brands present both the product and its packaging with different shapes, colours and modes of use according to the gender of their target, sometimes imperceptibly (James Loxley 2008; Petersson McIntyre 2018; Bouvier and Chen 2021). Through packaging design, they can demarcate and reinforce socially constructed concepts of masculinity and femininity that are apparently seen as commonplace and even “natural.”

Oudshoorn, Rudinow Saetnan, and Lie (2002) state that goods have a gender script expressed through the product’s characteristics and its packaging. In this sense, Aileen O’Driscoll (2019) indicates that advertising messages aimed at men are intended as fun, free and funny. These features are presented as innate just because they are men.

Campbell, Owen, and O’ Prey (2021) point to the use of a very different script regarding women when analyzing a brand of appetite-suppressing food products. The brand poses an oxymoron in which, on the one hand, it praises the effort made to achieve the ideal hegemonic skinniness, but at the same time it is impossible to achieve it. Women are characterized as fragile as they do not have the will power to lose weight, therefore the product is a solution for them.

The dominant culture draws a cultural dynamic that traditionally prioritizes male satisfaction and places men in a position of privilege from which the hegemonic form promises them power and the ability to maintain it (Connell 2003). Traditional femininity is sidelined, relegated mainly to the domestic sphere. In these unequal relations, gender is dynamic as it acts as a constructor of reality and interacts with other structures, such as social class or race. Media, as in food packaging, act as agencies of socialization (as do education and the family) and can transmit new gender expectations or contribute to reinforcing a normativity that perpetuates inequality. Packaging is yet another space to produce and shape what is considered masculine or feminine (Petersson McIntyre 2018) with the advantage of remaining in the environment where it operates.

In order to contrast masculine traits with feminine ones (Grohmann 2009), brands use the resources they themselves create and socially dominant discursive elements. According to Claire Harrison (2008), these propose ideal masculine values, such as those related to physical appearance (muscular and strong bodies).

Jonveaux (2015) points to the fact that women are shown in an inactive way through the sensuality of their body and inner peace (cold) in a study on shower gel containers and their relation to gender. However, men are represented based on activity (hot), strength and ambitions. These feelings of coldness are produced when touching warm-coloured objects and vice versa; the colour of hands when holding the product generates a contrasting effect (Ho Hsin-Ni, Daisuke Iwai, Yuki Yoshikawa, Junji Watanabe, and Shin’ya Nishida 2014).

The participants in the strategy design and creativity are in charge of constructing the narratives both formally and graphically and indicate the level of authenticity of products (Claire Dennington 2021). In addition to professionals, consumers will redefine messages through their consumption and usage habits.

Method

This research is based on an exploratory analysis of the content of packaging of industrial bakery and biscuit products aimed at children and the younger population in Spain between April and May 2021. Four biscuit brands were chosen (Príncipe, Princesa, Hojaldrada and Dinosaurus), as well as six industrial bakery brands (Donuts Glacé, Pantera Rosa, Donettes Gold Hunters, Tigretón, Pingüinos and BrioChoco). These products are the most sold ones on the market in Spain and, therefore, are the most consumed according to the latest report by Mercasa (2020). Príncipe belongs to the conglomerate Mondelēz International and, according to the corporate website, this product is sold in Europe, Algeria and China. Donuts Glacé and Donettes Gold Hunters belong to the company Grupo Bimbo, which is also present in Portugal.

This selection includes a range of products with a variety of types and formats to observe segmentation in accordance with the target audience. Products with a long history were prioritized (Hearst Magazines Spain, 2013; Interempresas, 2015; Financial Food, 2019), as well as categories of products consumed by young people (Mercedes Montero 2011; Mónica Matellanes-Lazo 2017) and strategic milestones that have increased sales.

The instrument of analysis (Table 1) was created based on the classification by Alexandra Festila and Polymeros Chrysochou (2018) and includes 17 variables distributed into two categories according to art historian Erwin Panofsky (1939). The pre-iconographic level contains a formal description in reference to the basic descriptive “natural” characteristics that are related to how the product has been created, while the iconographic level contains the graphic elements that are combined to create the product’s narrative. The iconographic level relating to the interpretation and meaning of the elements will be addressed in the discussion section of the article.

Table 1. Instrument of analysis of packaging.

Item	Answer
Formal elements
1. What is the theme of the texts?	Fun/promotion/health/tradition
2. What is the shape?	Angular/round
3. What material is it made from?	Cardboard/plastic/cardboard and plastic
4. Does the format include different pieces of the product (pack)?	Yes/no
Graphic elements
5. What is the predominant colour?	Yellow/blue/brown/orange/black/pink
6. What is the colour temperature?	Cold/warm/neutral
7. Are humanized representations observed on the product?	Yes/no
8. Are women represented?	Yes/no
9. What characteristic of women’s attributes is observed?	Kindness/sympathy/none
10. What stereotypes are observed related to women?	Beauty/cooking/emotions/none
11. Are men represented?	Yes/no
12. What characteristic of men’s attributes is observed?	Aggressiveness/Arrogance/bravery/none
13. What stereotypes are observed related to men?	Aggressiveness/conqueror/football/muscular bodies/none
14. Are animals represented?	Yes/no
15. Are humanized representations of animals observed?	Yes/no
16. What elements and/or spaces are observed?	Heart/kitchen/party/nature/space
17. Is a healthy image communicated?	Yes/no

Own elaboration based on the classification developed by Festila and Chrysochou (2018).

Data analysis

Based on the instrument of analysis (Table 1), a qualitative synthesis of the observed information was carried out according to the determined variables. Information of each packaging was analyzed and summarized in a table to identify the data related to the objective of the study.

The category of formal elements includes four variables that are related to ideas of masculinity and femininity. The textual theme is an element that can be related to gender, among other forms, from fun, promotion, health-related issues or tradition (Aday and Yener 2014; Bouvier and Chen 2021; Connell 2003; O’Driscoll 2019). According to the structure and materials, a product can be related to femininity or masculinity (Bouvier and Chen 2021; Oudshoorn, Rudinow Saetnan, and Lie 2002; Petersson McIntyre 2018).

Visual stimuli, such as colour, are signs that convey a gender script (Jonveaux 2015; Petersson McIntyre 2018) according to colour temperature (Jonveaux 2015). Furthermore, images of the product or humanized animals are an alternative to including images of people that increases brand equity and can be associated with established archetypes (Stephen Lloyd and Arch G. Woodside 2013).

Features of men and women’s attributes and represented stereotypes shape the representations of men and women. “Emphasized” femininity inserts beautiful and submissive women, at the service of the patriarchal system (Connell 2003). Hegemonic masculinity is developed based on physical superiority (muscular bodies) and power, as well as an active, dominant and aggressive nature (Connell 2003; Harrison 2008; Jonveaux 2015). Men are represented as active and women passive (Jonveaux 2015), therefore identifying the spaces is useful in order to understand it. On the other hand, a healthy image is included to collect at a general level the construction of the narrative of the brand around this theme.

Based on the analysis performed and the available literature, a semantic differential scale of dominant masculinity has been developed (Table 2). According to the objectives of the study, 3 criteria have been defined, which include 13 items to be analyzed per product. If an examined packaging only meets one item or more of criterion 1 but none of criteria 2 and 3, it is understood that it does not represent dominant masculinity. Criterion 1 includes two parts (1.a. and 1.b.) from which one must be selected based on colour temperature and gender script (Hsin-Ni et al. 2014; Jonveaux 2015). In this sense, men are represented from a fun perspective (O’Driscoll 2019) and women from a more caring and traditional view (Connell 2003). Angular shapes are linked to technology and are identified with masculinity and round shapes with femininity related to their body shapes (Oudshoorn, Rudinow Saetnan, and Lie 2002).

Table 2. Scale of dominant masculinity.

1.a.		1.b.
Criterion 1. Sensory characteristics of the packaging
1.a.1. Warm colours (+Half of packaging)		1.b.1. Cold or neutral colours (+Half of packaging)
1.a.2. Text theme tradition/health		1.b.2. Text theme fun
1.a.3. Round shape		1.b.3. Angular shape
Criterion 2. Representing people
2.1. Only representing women
2.2. Only representing men
2.3. Women linked to fragility
2.4. Men linked to physical superiority and/or power
2.5. Men in outdoor spaces
2.6. Women in indoor spaces
Criterion 3. Gender roles
3.1. Nature of men aggressive and/or brave and/or arrogant
3.2. Nature of women kindness and/or sympathy
3.3. Male stereotypes aggressiveness and/or dominant and/or physical ideals (muscular bodies)
3.4. Female stereotypes emotions and/or physical ideals (thin)

Own elaboration based on the research of Campbell, Owen, and O’ Prey (2021), Bouvier and Chen (2021), Petersson McIntyre (2018), Jonveaux (2015), Hsin-Ni et al. (2014), Grohmann (2009), Connell (2003), Oudshoorn, Rudinow Saetnan, and Lie (2002), Dittmar (1992) and Lunt and Livingstone (1992).

Criterion 2 is divided into a group of variables and does not contain other parts. It is important to identify whether the packaging includes characters, animals or objects with female or male characteristics. The key feature of the selected women’s attributes is fragility, framed by the idea of emphasized femininity (Connell 2003; Campbell, Owen, and O’ Prey 2021) Regarding men, physical advantage and power linked to strength and dominance are chosen (Connell 2003; Harrison 2008; Jonveaux 2015).

In terms of criterion 3, the key characteristics that link the men’s attributes to women have been selected through stereotypes. Regarding men, aggression is traditionally linked to physical strength (muscular bodies). Bravery and arrogance are related to power and dominance (Connell 2003; Harrison 2008; Jonveaux 2015). For women, kindness and sympathy are chosen in relation to emotional stereotypes and physical ideals of thinness (Bouvier and Chen 2021; Campbell, Owen, and O’ Prey 2021; Oudshoorn, Rudinow Saetnan, and Lie 2002; Petersson McIntyre 2018)

Results

Formal elements

The results show a similar frequency in text messages referring to fun (5 out of 10), health (4 out of 10), promotions (3 out of 10) and tradition (2 out of 10). Round shapes are used by 7 out of 10 brands (Príncipe, Hojaldrada, Donuts Glacé, Donettes Gold Hunters, Tigretón, Pantera Rosa, BrioChoco). Furthermore, 3 out of 10 brands sell the products in promotion packs (Príncipe, Hojaldrada y Donuts Glacé).

Graphic elements

Visual resources and their representations

Blue is used by four brands (Príncipe, Pingüinos, BrioChoco and Dinosaurus), yellow by 2 (Princesa and Donuts Glacé) and other colours in each one of the remaining four. In total, 5 out of 10 packaging use warm shades and 4 out of 10 cold shades.

The product image is included on ten packaging and three of them include humanized characteristics (Dinosaurus, Princesa and Donettes Gold Hunters). Dinosaurus shows a cartoon character of a dinosaur that throws a bucket of white chocolate onto the main biscuit (Figure 1). This central figure has a sad expression which is different to the figure next to it (angry face). However, the products by Princesa and Donettes Gold Hunters personify products by adding human body parts (arms and legs) to the characters.

Figure 1. Packaging analyzed in the biscuit category (1: Príncipe; 2: Princesa; 3: Hojaldrada; 4: Dinosaurus).

Five packaging contain pictures of humanized animals (Tigretón, Pantera Rosa, Pingüinos, Dinosaurus and Príncipe) through facial, body and behaviour expressions. Nature is present in two products (Príncipe and Dinosaurus) with green and mountain landscape. These elements are related to healthy messages in 3 out of 10 brands (Dinosaurus, Princesa and Hojaldrada). Image of femininity, attributes and stereotypes

Regarding female representations, they include 3 out of 10 packaging (Hojaldrada, Donuts Glacé and Príncipe). In the first brand, a photograph of a girl and a pregnant women are selected (blonde, white and wearing an apron) (Figure 1). The second brand shows two young, white women with brown and blonde hair (smiling with a doughnut over their face) (Figure 2). The third one depicts a young woman (in a dress and with a crown on her belt) and a girl (trousers and cloak) (Figure 1). On the back, the young woman is next to another product and the text, literally translated from Spanish states, “Have you tried the softest [biscuit] by PRÍNCIPE?” (Figure 1).

Figure 2. Packaging analyzed in the bakery category (1: Donuts Glacé; 2: Pantera Rosa; 3: Donettes Gold Hunters; 4: Tigretón; 5: Pingüinos; 6: BrioChoco).

The characteristics linked to women’s attributes are sympathy on 2 packaging (Príncipe and Donuts Glacé) and kindness on one (Hojaldrada). The young woman on the Príncipe product is not wearing a crown (Figure 1) and her body posture dynamic is similar to the girl next to the main character. In the same sense, Donuts Glacé uses the complicit gesture that women make (with the same hairstyle) by holding the doughnut (Figure 2). Hojaldrada shows a woman expressing kindness as she holds a bowl for the girl who breaks an egg (Figure 1). The stereotypes related to classical beauty (beautiful bodies, symmetric face, white skin) are observed in three products (Donuts Glacé and Hojaldrada), as well as in the Princesa products related to emotions.

Image of masculinity, attributes and stereotypes

Príncipe, Donuts Glacé, BrioChoco, Tigretón and Pantera Rosa display male figures on their products (5 out of 10). A young man with a classical royalty outfit (gloves, cloak, sword, crown on his head and belt) is used on the Príncipe product (Figure 1). On the back, the main character is standing with his chest held high and holding the product in his hand. At the back there is a character with a robust body, different from the rest. Donuts Glacé opted for pictures with two young male football players (Figure 2). BrioChoco includes a drawing of an astronaut with a wide complexion, long torso and broad shoulders. Tigretón and Pantera Rosa include male characters indirectly, through denomination (Tigretón) or a character (the Pink Panther, from the film by Blake Edwards).

Regarding men, in general, aggressive characteristics are observed on 3 out of 10 packaging (Príncipe, Donuts Glacé and Tigretón) and muscular men with the same number (Príncipe and Donuts Glacé and BrioChoco). Príncipe shows aggressiveness through an object (sword; Figure 1), Donuts Glacé with a body (blocking a move; Figure 2) and Tigretón with a facial expression (angry face; Figure 2). Other characteristics such as bravery are perceived on two products. Príncipe, the prince, is invited to embark on adventures similar to those of the modern age where unknown realms are conquered. BrioChoco appeals to the demanding physical condition of an astronaut. Arrogance is expressed in Donettes Gold Hunters through a bling-bling¹ necklace as a symbol of opulence or a certain social position.

Male stereotypes are found in four products (Donuts Glacé, Príncipe, BrioChoco and Tigretón). The photograph on the back of Donuts Glacé cuts two football players in half (muscular bodies) and show a violent attitude (movement). An angry expression is shown on Tigretón (arched eyebrows and frown) (Figure 2). However, the character on Príncipe shows a weapon attached to his muscular body (Figure 1). The astronaut’s body in BrioChoco is muscular and diagonal, as if trying to reach for the product, similar to a planet (Figure 2).

Application of scale of dominant masculinity

Finally, on the scale of applied dominant masculinity (Table 2) 9 criteria of the 13 are met with Príncipe and Donuts Glacé. This is followed by Hojaldrada (8 out of 13), Princesa (7 out of 13), BrioChoco (6 out of 13), Tigretón (4 out of 13), Donettes Gold Hunters (3 out of 13) and Pantera Rosa (2 out of 13). On the other hand, Dinosaurus and Pingüinos only present items of sensory characteristics (3 out of 13, respectively), so they are considered to not comply with the ideas of dominant masculinity.

Discussion

The results show that the brands of industrial bakery and biscuit products create different visual narratives, in general, linked to masculinity and also to femininity through formal and graphic elements. The most used theme is health and fun, and the least used revolves around promotions and tradition. A round shape contains more stereotypes than angular packaging, and in general, they are linked to men. Regarding the graphical side, brands often use blue in a cold shade. One third chose to assign human characteristics to their products and half to humanize the animal characters. Men are located in outdoor spaces and are more represented through stereotypes than women.

The use of different narratives to project different masculine and feminine values are constructed with the help of different elements such as textual subject matter as evidenced in the studies by O’Driscoll (2019) and Bouvier and Chen (2021). We have observed, as in Bouvier and Chen’s (2021) study, that while fun and health are the predominant themes, promotional and traditional aspects are secondary. Health is an issue of concern for consumers, so it is possible that its role is central to these products. This may be because brands use fun and health to decrease the perceived risk of consumption and enhance the loyalty of their audiences (Elliott and Truman 2020; Pamela Rothpletz-Puglia, Lynn Fredericks, Margaret Rush Dreker, Rachael Patusco and Jane Ziegler 2022). We have also observed that round packaging, linked to “healthy” aspects (Fenko, Lotterman, and Galetzka 2016; van Ooijen et al. 2017). Stereotypes have been presented to a greater extent in this medium linked to men’s aggressiveness and muscular bodies, especially through depictions of violent body postures and weapons (Connell 2003; Harrison 2008; Jonveaux 2015). Inset animals are represented according to these archetypal forms and infer their meanings, as well as products with human characteristics (Lloyd and Woodside 2013).

Outdoor spaces are occupied by active men as opposed to women who are presented indoors, an intimate space in which they embody passive roles (Jonveaux 2015). This approach corresponds to the emphasis on femininity (Connell 2003) and coincides with that observed in other studies where fragility and passivity are characteristics assigned to women (Jonveaux 2015; Campbell, Owen, and O’ Prey 2021). In fact, when women and men are included on the same packaging, women are a minority and are shown shorter than men. In line with what has been observed in literature for almost five decades, women have a lower presence than men in this media (Zebrowitz-McArthur and Gabrielle Resko 1975). Despite the fact that women have been shown to be frequent consumers of such sweet products (Bel et al. 2019; Liu et al. 2021; Vatanparast et al. 2019), this does not seem to encourage brands to include more depictions of women on the packaging.

In terms of format, our results differ from other findings that indicate that this shape tends to emphasize emotions (Bouvier and Chen 2021; Oudshoorn, Rudinow Saetnan, and Lie 2002; Petersson McIntyre 2018). This result may be due to the fact that, in opposition to other studies, we have included promotion packs, which have a round shape and a larger surface area available to include significant elements. The shape, which is part of the product’s identity, seems to be selected based on cost savings and to make mass transportation easier. In contrast, in other more expensive products such as perfumes, the shape is a key element leaving the content of the product in the background (Petersson McIntyre 2018). Regarding the use of colours, images of men and women are included on packaging where blue and yellow prevail, although they are designed differently. Yellow, as can be seen on the Donuts Glacé packaging, is a colour that is not traditionally associated with masculinity, unlike blue which can be associated from an early age with boys through their clothing and through objects with more irascible characteristics (Martha L. Picariello, Danna N. Greenberg, and David B. Pillemer 1990; Mary Driver Leinbach, Barbara E. Hort, and Beverly I. Fagot 1997).

However, both are linked to a majority of packaging where male personality traits related to aggressiveness and bravery are projected (Connell 2003; Harrison 2008; Jonveaux 2015). In packaging where yellow predominates, stereotypes related to muscular bodies and hegemony showed aggressiveness through bodily expression. The same happens with the colour blue, where the masculine image is projected through an object like a weapon, a violent object intended to defend or attack people (Leinbach, Hort, and Fagot 1997). On the other hand, products in which these same colours predominate, the representations of having a relaxed body expression are generally linked to sympathy. A potential hypothesis for this novel result would be that brands avoid the classical associations between colours and masculinity (blue) or femininity (pink), by allowing other colours a different meaning (in this case, yellow).

In this sense, an unequal role representation is highlighted in line with the findings of Schneider and Barich Schneider (1979) and María-Paz González, Suzanne Thornsbury, and Diana Twede (2007). Cold colours, such as blue, become warm when in contact with hands, which is linked to men and, in general, to stereotypes related to them (Hsin-Ni et al. 2014; Jonveaux 2015). A priori, the use of colours projects neutrality, but cultural values, when placed on the same level as masculinity and neutrality, leave femininity below (Petersson McIntyre 2018). This means that colours reinforce the construction of gender scripts and continue to reproduce predominant forms of masculinity and femininity that are occasionally unnoticeable. There is also no evidence of already socially accepted roles shown in other media where men, for example, assume responsibility for care and home tasks. Women are represented with a passive role, as stated in Jonveaux’s study (2015) and according to current and majority beauty standards. This is observed on the packaging of Príncipe and Princesa; two brands that display different significant elements for masculine and feminine roles. In the first one, the colour blue predominates and the figurative image of the main character is a member of royalty and is supported by a majority of men. In the second one, pink is the main abstract element and femininity is forced alongside the brand name. The product (a heart-shaped biscuit) is the personification of the mandate over family care and feelings toward them. These two brands continue to use strategies already employed in the 1970s in television advertisements, where the male figure acted as a support for the female figure to enhance purchase intent (Marecek et al. 1978). In this case, it is the female-named brand that is supported by the male-named brand and thus reserves the “appropriate” and normatively accepted role for women.

Among the analyzed packaging, animals are included and given a name. This occurs with the umbrella brand Bimbo as it used a character that already exists (Pink Panther) and another product (Tigretón) created by the brand to present contrasting male characteristics. The Pink Panther partially follows the mandates of traditional masculinity as it is related to another stereotypical figure (English gentleman), but its main colour is pink, which is more closely linked to femininity. In this sense, although there is a paradigm shift in the use of pink, binary gender scripts are still used as observed in the research by Loxley (2008) and Bouvier and Chen’s (2021). Pingüinos and Dinosaurus also contain characters with human characteristics, but they are not related to gender or stereotypes. It is likely that certain characteristics of the characters or the product may be more relevant in generating a stronger link to the brand if the weight of the strategy is focused on the brand identity itself (Belk 2007). In addition, the characteristics assigned to an animal character can be transferred to the product in the same way that links are made with colour or other elements (Lloyd and Woodside 2013). In any case, this cannot be corroborated as the data on the strategies used by the brands are not accessible to verify.

Stereotypes are present in most packaging and are homogeneous in terms of the representation of gender expression. Those related to men are outlined by anchoring aggressive and dominant narratives equivalent to those present in literature (Harrison 2008). This result is significant because it is in line with the mandates of hegemonic masculinity (Oudshoorn, Rudinow Saetnan, and Lie 2002). For instance, Príncipe, one of the packaging with a value of 9 out of 13 on the dominant masculinity scale, shows a character with characteristics that do not seem to follow body regulations. In this case, the character’s attire is also different from the rest, as he covers his head so that it is only possible to see his face and ears. The exception of the image against the majority that follow the traditional norm further reinforces the hegemonic form. The brand is supposed to make body diversity visible, but it really continues to represent this as something unusual. In the same sense, in general, stereotypes are used to represent characteristics with which most consumers are supposed to be reflected. On the other hand, women are related to a lower number of stereotypes, although when this happens they are found on packaging whose colours are warm and focused on the emotional side. Cooking is still shown as a woman’s space were men are absent and traditional roles are reinforced with messages about caring for the family (Dominick and Rauch 1972; O’Donnell and O’Donnell 1978).

In terms of the limitations of this research, the main one refers to the lack of studies addressing the representations of masculinity and femininity on food packaging (Campbell, Owen, and O’ Prey 2021; Jonveaux 2015; Oudshoorn, Rudinow Saetnan, and Lie 2002; Petersson McIntyre 2018). Nonetheless, this has allowed us to compare and relate the obtained data in a broad context. On the other hand, although the selected sample is not random, it collects data on the main products of the sector in terms of market share and meets the objective of the research, as well as enabling in-depth and critical analysis of the collected data. In the same sense, the obtained results from the packaging of industrial bakery and biscuit products coincide with the findings of literature regarding other products and means, allowing for comparisons to be made.

Regarding the strengths of this study, the analysis based on the selected variables tries to understand the subtleties of the narratives and identify characteristics that include the expression of gender and hegemonic masculinity. As far as we know, this is the only study that analyzes industrial bakery and biscuit packaging from this approach suggesting a significant departure from other studies. We have integrated a gender and health lens in a cross-cutting way, as these are food products marked by strong strategies aimed at audiences who are building their personalities. Due to the difficulty of interrelating these aspects, the instrument of analysis intends to facilitate in a practical way the identification and interpretation of the abstract elements involving unconscious cognitive processes that constitute gender scripts. This kind of analysis has already been shown to be useful and effective in other studies when analyzing the characteristics of other advertising products (Festila and Chrysochou 2018).

The results of this research allow us to conclude that there are inequalities on a symbolic level in industrial bakery and biscuit packaging. The products contain a variety of associated stereotypes mainly associated to men and they establish relations with characteristics of their nature. In general, the projected image is related to aggressiveness and superiority over women. These unequal relations on most packaging are related to the items selected by the brands (Dittmar 1992; Lunt and Livingstone 1992; Grohmann 2009). For instance, the colour blue and its temperature are linked, as in other media, to male stereotypes related to muscular bodies and strength, dominance and aggression. In the case of women, although the images are related to fewer stereotypes, their presence reinforces a single form of masculinity or femininity (Loxley 2008).

We have identified that specific criteria, such as age, profession, etc. (Lundstrom and Sciglimpaglia 1977), seem to prevail in the segmentation of audiences and, thus, are reflected in the characters represented in the final product in a stereotypical way. In order to encourage the promotion of equality in this tangible medium, consumers need to become aware of the weight of the advertising narrative and, at the same time, copywriters need to be trained in alternatives to mainstream segmentation. Brands have an important role to play in which it is essential that gender role distinction ceases to function as a strategic tool that is limited exclusively to sales objectives. The potential of packaging to contribute to egalitarian representations is considerable if the possibilities offered by the medium are considered. The same is true for the Internet or television and the synergy effects could be increased by producing new forms of communication.

In terms of gender issues, no solutions have been proposed in terms of packaging or other means. Evidence focuses on discouraging consumption and suggests improving legislative resources around labelling, taxation (Bel et al. 2019) and the promotion of healthy eating habits in young people (Liu et al. 2021). All these measures can also be useful in promoting egalitarian representations on products and can be complemented by the use of new tools by copywriters. For example, one of the things we can do to actively fight against gender inequality in this medium is to encourage copywriters to apply the scale of dominant masculinity proposed in this analysis. Another possible solution would be to create a model to validate characteristics of gender representations, assigned roles and explicit character traits. This model could serve as a guide to ensure a creative process away from stereotypical representations by bringing new and more egalitarian elements into the imaginary. An egalitarian perspective in the process could make brands rethink their values and philosophy, in such a way that this could indirectly improve the nutritional quality of these products. The use of abstract elements can also be a useful resource to avoid stereotypes and to start relating non-traditional values instead of using them as reinforcement of what is considered traditional.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The work was supported by the University of Alicante (Vice Rectorate for Research) [Aii20-07]; Valencian Regional Ministry of Innovation, Universities, Science and Digital Society [ACIF/2021/119]; AICO, Generalitat Valenciana (2022- 2024) [CIAICO/2021/019].

Notes on contributors

Romina Carla Curone-Prieto

Romina Carla Curone-Prieto. Publicist, MSc Social Innovation and Dynamics of Change, PhD student in Interdisciplinary Gender Studies. Pre-doctoral researcher at the University of Alicante (Spain). Her research focuses on the analysis of media and their relationship with inequalities in health and gender.

Daniel La Parra-Casado

Daniel La Parra-Casado, Sociologist, MSc Epidemiology, PhD. Professor in Sociology at the University of Alicante (Spain). His research focuses on social stratification and health inequity, with a special focus on ethnic minorities, gender, social class and their intersections.

Carmen Vives-Cases

Carmen Vives-Cases, Sociologist, MPH, PhD. Professor in Preventive Medicine and Public Health at the University of Alicante (Spain). Director of several research projects about violence against women, immigration, ethnic minorities and public health. Doctor Honoris Causa by Umeå University (Sweden) in 2019.

Notes

1. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, s.v. “bling,” accessed 10^th January 2022, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bling.