Tropes of the Cold War: Jimmy Carter and Rhodesia

Abstract

In June 1979 Jimmy Carter chose to defy Congress by declaring the first multiracial Rhodesian elections invalid because the guerrillas fighting the white minority regime in Salisbury had not participated in them. Why was Carter able to transcend the compelling tropes of the Cold War and view the guerrillas – who would have been deemed terrorists had they been in Central America or Iran or Palestine – as freedom fighters? This essay debunks the notion that Cyrus Vance and Zbigniew Brzezinski were always at loggerheads, underlines the importance of an effective diplomatic team, provides an example of unusually close cooperation with Whitehall, and reveals the intersection of race and foreign policy.

Notes

 [1] Roger Jepsen (R-Iowa), 28 March 1979, Congressional Record, 6558. This article is based on research I have done for my forthcoming book: Mitchell, “Race and Realpolitik.” For a very good overview of Carter's policy toward Rhodesia see DeRoche, “Standing Firm for Principles.”

 [2] Editorial, Washington Post, 4 April 1978.

 [3] Interview with Jimmy Carter, Atlanta, Georgia, 23 May 2002.

 [4] See Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions.

 [5] “Presidential Review Memorandum: Rhodesia, Namibia and South Africa,” undated, c. late January 1977, 7, Declassified Documents Reference System (hereafter DDRS).

 [6] Bill Drummond, “Young Pushes for Black Lobby on Africa: Black America's Stake in Rhodesia,” Pacific News Service, 19 June 1979, Africa News, US Foreign Relations: Rhodesia, box 253, Duke University Special Collections.

 [7] “Presidential Review Memorandum: Rhodesia, Namibia and South Africa,” undated, c. late January 1977, 5, DDRS.

 [8] See Memcon (Mark Chona, adviser to the President of Zambia, Dunstan Kamana, Zambian Ambassador to the UN, Brzezinski), “Southern Africa,” 19 January 1977, National Security Affairs, Staff Material: North/South, box 118, the Jimmy Carter Library in Atlanta, Georgia (hereafter CL).

 [9] Quoted in Onslow, “South Africa and the Owen/Vance Plan of 1977,” 136.

[10] See Waters, Black Presidential Politics in America, 33–42, 68–71.

[11] McFarland, “A Critique of the TV Presentation of Roots I.”

[12] “Presidential Review Memorandum: Rhodesia, Namibia and South Africa,” undated, c. late January 1977, 3, DDRS. See also Vance, Statement to Senate Subcommittee on African Affairs, 10 February 1977, “The Rhodesian Sanctions Bill,” Hearing before the Subcommittees on Africa and International Organizations of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, 95th Congress, 1st session, 24 February 1977, appendix 1, Washington, DC: GPO, 1977 and Vance, Hard Choices, 256–57.

[13] Andrew Young, quoted in “The Rhodesian Sanctions Bill,” Hearing before the Subcommittees on Africa and International Organizations of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, 95th Congress, 1st session, 24 February 1977, 17, Washington, DC: GPO, 1977.

[14] Interview with Carter.

[15] American Embassy London to Secretary of State, 22 February 1976, 2, Freedom of Information Act (hereafter FOIA).

[16] CIA National Foreign Assessment Center, “Western European Weekly Review,” 15 March 1978, Carter–Brezhnev Project, the National Security Archive, Washington, DC (hereafter NSA).

[17] Crosland, Tony Crosland, 394.

[18] Owen, Time to Declare, 291.

[19] See “Presidential Review Memorandum: Rhodesia, Namibia and South Africa,” undated, c. late January 1977, 6, DDRS. For an analysis of South Africa's relations with Rhodesia and attitude toward the Anglo-American diplomatic offensive, see Onslow, “South Africa and the Owen/Vance Plan of 1977,” 130–58; see also Smith, The Great Betrayal, 228–48.

[20] The Daily Mail (Lusaka), 15 April 1977.

[21] Owen, Time to Declare, 271, 284; also, interview with David Owen, London, 22 November 2002.

[22] Vance, Hard Choices, 261.

[23] Interview with Andrew Young, Atlanta, Georgia, 16 July 2002. See “Nyerere Appeals to US: Topple Smith,” The Rand Daily Mail (Johannesburg), 7 February 1977, 5; “Young Outlines Africa Policy,” The Daily Nation (Nairobi), 8 February 1977, 1, 16.

[24] Special Coordination Committee (SCC) Meeting, “Africa Policy Review: South Africa and Rhodesia,” 8 February 1977, FOIA.

[25] Vance, Hard Choices, 264.

[26] Vance to Carter, “Next Steps on Rhodesia,” 2 May 1977, enclosed in Peter Tarnoff to Brzezinski, 3 May 1977, FOIA.

[27] Backgrounder attached to Charles Maynes to Vance, 28 May 1977, FOIA.

[28] Owen and Young, “Rhodesia – Proposals for a Settlement: Joint News Conference,” 3 October 1977, Department of State Bulletin, 421. See Smith, Great Betrayal, 232–3.

[29] For the early talks about US cooperation with the British, see Memcon (Philip Habib, Owen, et al.), 11 March 1977, FOIA; Vance to Carter, “Next Steps on Rhodesia,” 2 May 1977, enclosed in Tarnoff to Brzezinski, 3 May 1977, FOIA. For a good example of the attempt to treat all nationalist groups impartially, see Brzezinski to Carter, “Muzorewa Request for a Meeting,” undated [probably July 1978], National Security Affairs, Staff Material, box 119–25, CL.

[30] The Anglo-American proposals were first explained in early August 1977. See Warren Christopher to US Embassies (Canada, France, FRG), 9 August 1977, “Rhodesia: Approach to Host Governments,” NSA, South Africa: The Making of US Policy, 1962–1989, #00769. For the complete proposals, see “Rhodesia – Proposals for a Settlement: Text of Proposals,” 3 October 1977, Department of State Bulletin, 424–39.

[31] Moose, “Rhodesia” [testimony to Senate Foreign Relations Committee], 7 March 1979, State Department Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of Media Services.

[32] See the testimony of Ambassador William Edmondson, in “United States Policy toward Rhodesia,” Hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives,” 95^th Congress, 1st session, 8 June 1977, GPO, 1978, 5.

[33] Vance, Hard Choices, 264.

[34] Interview with Owen. See also Owen, Time to Declare, 283.

[35] See Christine Dodson (NSC) to Walter Mondale, Vance, Harold Brown, Stansfield Turner, Young, “Papers for the Policy Review Committee (PRC) Meeting on Southern Africa, July 22,” Vertical File, CL, and Vance, Hard Choices, 269, 271. In July 1977, the Organization of African Unity recognized the Patriotic Front as the sole legitimate representative of the Zimbabwe people. This hardened the Front's stance at the negotiating table. See CIA National Foreign Assessment Center, “Rhodesia: Impact of an Internal Settlement,” 9 February 1978, Carter–Brezhnev Project, NSA.

[36] Interview with Sir John Graham, Chipping Norton, 19 November 2002. See Owen, Time to Declare, 313–14.

[37] Vance to Carter, “Next Steps on Rhodesia,” 2 May 1977, enclosed in Tarnoff to Brzezinski, 3 May 1977, FOIA.

[38] DOS, “GIST: Rhodesia–US Policy,” June 1978, National Security Affairs, Staff Material, box 119–25, CL; interview with Young.

[39] Andrew Young, “United States Reiterates Support for the Independence of Namibia and Zimbabwe at Maputo Conference,” 11 July 1977, Department of State Bulletin, 55–6. (This was the speech that was prepared for Young to deliver on May 19, but he did not follow this script.)

[40] “The Secretary: US Relations with Africa” (Address before the 58th annual meeting of the US Jaycees, June 20, 1978), Department of State Bulletin, Aug. 1978, 10–13.

[41] American Embassy London to Vance, 23 May 1977, FOIA.

[42] Robert Hunter and Thomas Thornton to Brzezinski, “British Liaison Office in Salisbury,” 20 September 1977, National Security Affairs, Staff Material: North/South, box 119–25, “Zimbabwe,” CL.

[43] See Owen, Time to Declare, 310 and Vance, Hard Choices, 269; also interview with Owen.

[44] Carter's handwritten notes during cabinet meeting, 7 November 1977, Staff Secretary, box 58, CL.

[45] Henry Richardson to Brzezinski, “Andy Young's Recommendations on Rhodesian-Related UN Oil Regulatory Measures,” 21 December 1977, National Security Affairs, Staff Material, box 119–25, CL.

[46] Carter's handwritten notes during cabinet meeting, 12 September 1977, Staff Secretary, box 48, CL.

[47] National Security Council Meeting: Minutes, 3 March 1977, DDRS.

[48] National Security Council Meeting: Minutes, 3 March 1977, DDRSIbid.

[49] Vorster, quoted in Onslow, “South Africa and the Owen/Vance Plan of 1977,” 154.

[50] Owen, quoted in Meredith, The Past is Another Country, 334. See also Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 140 and Vance, Hard Choices, 287.

[51] Vance, Hard Choices, 285.

[52] Vance to Carter, “Your Visit to Nigeria,” 14 March 1978, FOIA; interview with Donald Easum, US ambassador to Nigeria, New York City, 29 July 1999.

[53] Vance to Easum, “Rhodesia: Approach to GON [Government of Nigeria],” 25 January 1978, FOIA.

[54] For summaries of Congressional actions, see: “Congress and Africa Policy,” in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (prepared by Raymond Copson, Congressional Research Service), “Congress and Foreign Policy – 1978,” 171–80, Washington DC: GPO, 1979; “Congress and Africa Policy, 1979: Focus on Rhodesia,” in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (prepared by Raymond Copson, Congressional Research Service), “Congress and Foreign Policy – 1979,” 85–99, Washington DC: GPO, 1980.

[55] Interview with Anthony Lake, Director of Department of State Office of Policy Planning, Washington DC, 14 October 2002. For a chronology of events leading up to the election and a concise explanation of Case–Javits, see Vance to Carter, “The Rhodesian Elections,” 30 March 1979, National Security Affairs, Staff Material, box 119–25, CL.

[56] William Brewster to Vance, “NYT Article on Mrs. Thatcher's Intentions,” 10 April 1979, FOIA.

[57] Quoted in “Congress and Africa Policy, 1979: Focus on Rhodesia,” in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (prepared by Raymond Copson, Congressional Research Service), “Congress and Foreign Policy – 1979,” 87, Washington, DC: GPO, 1980.

[58] See Vance, Hard Choices, 295–6.

[59] Vance to Carter, “The Rhodesian Elections,” 30 March 1979, National Security Affairs, Staff Material, box 119–25, CL.

[60] Young to Vance, “Suggested Strategy for Southern Africa,” 11 April 1979, FOIA.

[61] “Sanctions: Zimbabwe-Rhodesia Decision Explained,” US Department of State Bureau of Public Affairs, Current Policy no. 70, June 1979. This includes both President Carter's statement and Vance's 12 June elaboration.

[62] DePree (Maputo) to Vance, “President Carter's Decision,” 8 June [May is printed, but it must be June] 1979, FOIA.

[63] Roger McGuire (Maputo) to Vance, “Mozambique and ZANU Media Reaction,” 9 June [May is printed, but must be June] 1979, FOIA.

[64] Michael O'Brien (Lusaka) to Vance, “Media Reaction,” 9 June 1979, FOIA.

[65] Easum (Lagos) to Vance, “Nigerian Press Reaction,” 12 June 1979, FOIA. See also Kent Obee (Dar es Salaam) to Vance, “Media Reaction,” 11 June 1979, FOIA.

[66] Interview with Willard DePree, US ambassador to Mozambique, Bethesda, MD, 11 June 2001.

[67] “Carter Bars Move to Lift Sanctions,” The Daily Nation (Nairobi), 9 June 1979, 24.

[68] Press Release from the Office of Senator Edward M. Kennedy: “Statement by Senator Kennedy Against Lifting Rhodesian Sanctions,” 12 June 1979, National Security Affairs, Staff Material, box 119–25, CL.

[69] Congressional Record - Senate, 12 June 1979, 14370.

[70] Francis Meehan (Vienna) to Vance, “First Meeting between Vice President Mondale and Prime Minister Vorster,” 20 May 1977, FOIA; Low to Vance, 5 July 1977, FOIA; Brzezinski to Carter, “Where We Stand on the Rhodesian Negotiations,” 3 November 1977, enclosed in Richardson to Brzezinski, 3 November 1977, National Security Affairs, Staff Material, box 119–25, CL.

[71] Edmondson to Vance, “Smith Warns against Constitutional Changes,” 16 July 1979, FOIA. See Smith, Great Betrayal, 306.

[72] Flower, Serving Secretly, 198.

[73] My book (Mitchell, “Race and Realpolitik”) will include a full analysis of these alternative explanations of Carter's decision – that he was appeasing black Africans, African Americans, or US liberals, or seeking to protect US access to Nigerian oil.

[74] Andrew Young, “The Promise of US Africa Policy,” Washington Post, 17 May 1976; “Memorandum for the Record: ‘Africa Trip Impressions,’” 27 November 1976, NSA, South Africa: The Making of US Policy, no. 00708.

[75] “Carter Speaks on South Africa,” Financial Mail (Johannesburg), 5 Nov. 1976, 500–510, Africa News – Persons, Carter, box 334, Duke University.

[76] “Memorandum for the Record: ‘Africa Trip Impressions’,” 27 November 1976, NSA, South Africa: The Making of US Policy, no. 00708.

[77] Interview with Young. For Carter's views on race, see Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line, 242–59; Dumbrell, The Carter Presidency, 86–109.

[78] Ghayth Nur Kashif, “Young Defends Carter's Domestic, Foreign Policies,” Bilalian News, 21 October 1977, 19.

[79] Frank Giles, “How Americans View Ian Smith,” Sunday Times (London), 8 October 1978, Africa News, “US Foreign Relations: Rhodesia,” box 253, Duke University.

[80] Interview with Carter.

[81] Carter, quoted in Dumbrell, The Carter Presidency, 86.

[82] See Metz, “The Anti-Apartheid Movement,” 362.

[83] Mary McGrory, “Winning the Hearts and Minds of Africa,” Washington Star, 10 September 1976.

[84] Minutes of Cabinet Meeting, 14 November 1977, Vertical File, CL.

[85] Special Coordination Committee Meeting, 8 February 1977, Vertical File, CL.

[86] Young, during discussion of “The Rhodesian Sanctions Bill,” Hearing before the Subcommittees on Africa and International Organizations of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, 95^th Congress, 1st session, on HR 1746, 24 February 1977, Washington, DC: GPO, 1977, 8, 12.

[87] From the 22 October 1976 debate, quoted in editorial, Crisis, December 1976, 337.

[88] Interview with Donald McHenry, US Ambassador to the UN, Washington, DC, 15 October 2002.

[89] Quoted in Charlton, The Last Colony, 27.

[90] Lord Carrington, Reflecting on Things Past, 290.

[91] John Newhouse, “Profiles: Lord Carrington,” The New Yorker, 14 February 1983, 71.

[92] Flower, Serving Secretly, 227.

[93] Edmondson to Vance, “Chicerema's Strategy,” 10 July 1979, FOIA.

[94] Owen, Time to Declare, 318; see Vance, Hard Choices, 297.

[95] See Davidow, A Peace in Southern Africa, 36–7.

[96] Carrington quoted in Charlton, The Last Colony, 63.

[97] Roberts Owen, Moose, Maynes to Vance, “Executive Order to Revoke Rhodesian Sanctions,” 7 December 1979, FOIA; “Southern Rhodesian Settlement, Dec. 15, 1979,” Department of State Bulletin, February 1980, 11; Madeleine Albright to Brzezinski, “Weekly Legislative Report,” 15 December 1979, National Security Affairs, Staff Material, box 2, “Press and Congressional Relations,” CL.

[98] “White House Statement, Dec. 17, 1979,” Department of State Bulletin, February 1980, 12.

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Nancy Mitchell

Nancy Mitchell is an associate professor at North Carolina State University. She is the author of The Danger of Dreams: German and American Imperialism in Latin America, 1895–1914 (1999) and the chapter on Jimmy Carter in the Cambridge History of the Cold War (forthcoming, 2008). She is currently writing a book on Carter's policy in Africa.