‘High-Spirited Confusion’: Brazil, the 1961 Belgrade Non-Aligned Conference, and the Limits of an ‘Independent’ Foreign Policy during the High Cold War

Abstract

The article recounts the story, hidden until now, of Brazil's abortive attempt to send an observer to the September 1961 Belgrade conference – the founding gathering of the Non-Aligned Movement, a follow-on to the 1955 Bandung conference of newly-independent, decolonizing nations from Africa and Asia. Using declassified Brazilian as well as US and British sources, the article illustrates Washington's ambivalence toward what it saw as the Brazilian government's flirtation with neutralism, and Rio's difficulties in pursuing what it defined as a more ‘independent’ foreign policy – notwithstanding membership in a US-led hemispheric collective security bloc epitomized by the 1947 Rio pact and the Organization of American States. The article also touches on NAM's problems in expanding to Latin America, and the irritant to US–Yugoslav (i.e., Tito) ties caused by the issue of Brazilian participation.

Acknowledgements

For funding the research trip to Brazil, I thank the National Security Archive and its director, Thomas S. Blanton; and for facilitating my access to materials at the foreign ministry archives in Brasília, I thank the archive staff (especially Francisco das Chagas Lopes) and the Brazilian Embassy in Washington (especially Paulo M. Almeida).

The author presented an earlier version of this article to the conference on ‘The International History of the Bandung Conference and the Origins of the Non-Aligned Movement’, Sveti Stefan, Serbia and Montenegro, 1316 May 2005. For supporting my participation in this conference, I thank the Institute of European, Russian, and Eurasian Studies (IERES) at GWU and Prof. James Goldgeier, as well as the Woodrow Wilson Center's Cold War International History Project (CWIHP) and its director, Christian Ostermann. For essential help in arranging the translation of these documents from Portuguese to English, I would like to acknowledge and thank Bob Feron and Christopher Ellison of the Brazilian Embassy in Washington; Luis Bitencourt, director of the Wilson Center's Brazil Project; and Alex Parlini of the Brazil Project. For insightful comments, I also thank the two anonymous reviewers for Cold War History.

Notes

 [1] On Brazil's ‘independent’ foreign policy in the early 1960s, see, e.g., Leacock, Requiem for Revolution, esp. chap. 2.

 [2] Lowenthal, “The United States and Latin America,” 199–213; Lowenthal, “From Regional Hegemony to Complex Bilateral Relations.” I thank one of the anonymous Cold War History referees for steering me toward Lowenthal's work.

 [3] At the time, in August 2000, I was able to gain seemingly unfettered access to formerly secret materials dealing with Brazilian foreign policy in the 1960s and 1970s on such topics as the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis and the 1975–76 Angolan Crisis. Unfortunately, visitors report that since 2002 access to such materials has sharply diminished.

 [4] See , “The United States, Brazil, and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 (Part 1)”; and idem, “The United States, Brazil, and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 (Part 2).”

 [5] Cable from US ambassador to Brazil, Lincoln Gordon (describing former foreign minister and then-presidential foreign policy adviser San Tiago Dantas), embtel 890, 26 October 1962, in Hershberg, “The United States, Brazil, and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 (Part 2),” 32.

 [6] See, e.g., “Actions by Quadros in Pursuance of His Independent Foreign Policy,” enc. w. Woodward to Ball, “Subject: Summary of US Assistance to Brazil under President Quadros and the Latter's Actions in Pursuance of His Independent Foreign Policy,” 18 September 1961, in 632.00/10-1560, box 1327, State Department Central Decimal File (CDF), RG 59, NA II: ‘constantly manifested’: Memorandum from deputy assistant secretary of state for inter-American affairs (Coerr) to Acting Secretary of State Bowles, “Subject: President Quadros’ Attitude on Neutralism and Cuba,” 14 May 1961, in US Department of State, FRUS, 1961–1963, Vol. XII, 433–4; “Belgrade and Rio in Trade Accord,” New York Times (NYT), 30 April 1961, 23.

 [7] Rusk to President Kennedy, 21 March 1961, President's Office Files: Country: Brazil, JFKL, in Leacock, Requiem for Revolution, 23.

 [8] Weis, Cold Warriors and Coups D'etat, 146.

 [9] See, e.g., Rio embtel no. 1728 (Bond), 30 May 1961, in “Conferences – Belgrade Conference of Non-Aligned Nations, 9/61,” folder 1 of 2, box 252A, National Security Files (NSF), Trips and Conferences, John F. Kennedy Library (JFKL), Boston.

[10] “Remark by Envoy Arouses Quadros,” NYT, 12 July 1961, 13. For a transcript of the offending remarks, taken from a tape recording of the press conference and relayed by Cabot, see Rio de Janeiro embtel no. 80 (Cabot), 12 July 1961, in “Brazil – General – 6/61–7/61,” box 12, National Security Files, Country Files (hereafter: NSF:CO), JFKL.

[11] “U.S. Envoy Is Rebuked By Quadros,” Washington Post, 15 July 1961, A6.

[12] On reactions to the argument, see Juan de Onis, “Brazil Plans Tie with Soviet Soon,” NYT, 25 July 1961, 11. On the Cabot–Quadros incident and JFK's decision to replace Cabot with Gordon, see also Leacock, Requiem for a Revolution, 27.

[13] Rio de Janeiro embtel no. 80 (Cabot), 12 July 1961, in “Brazil – General – 6/61–7/61” folder, box 12, NSF:CO, JFKL; and John Moors Cabot diaries, handwritten diary entries for 11–13 July 1961, Cabot Papers, Tufts University Library (cited from microfilm copy), Medford, MA.

[14] Rio de Janeiro embtel no. 204 (Cabot), 25 July 1961, in “Brazil – General – 6/61–7/61” folder, box 12, NSF:CO, JFKL.

[15] See cable from Brazilian Foreign Ministry to Brazilian Embassy in Cairo, 22 May 1961, which refers to the letter a month earlier from Tito and Nasser to Quadros; this and other Brazilian cables, unless otherwise noted, are from ANEXO Secreto – 900.1 – POLITICA INTERNACIONAL – 1958/1966, Foreign Ministry archives (Arquivo do Ministério das Relações Exteriores), Brasília, Brazil and translated by Christopher Ellison with revisions by Bob Feron.

[16] Brazilian Embassy in Cairo (Carlos Martins Thompson Flores) to Brazilian Foreign Ministry, 20 May 1961.

[17] JFK had plucked the famous author of the “‘X’ Article” and “Architect of Containment” (despite his closet dissent from many resulting policies), who had left the State Department a decade earlier in disagreement with the Truman administration's shift to harder-line policies, from academic exile at Princeton to return to government service.

[18] Belgrade embtel no. 42 (Kennan), secret, 14 July 1961, in “Yugoslavia – General – 1/61–8/61” folder, box 209A, NSF:CO, JFKL.

[19] Tito's planned autumn 1961 visit to Brazil was postponed, and he eventually visited the country, under Goulart, in September 1963, on a Latin American tour that also included stops in Chile, Bolivia, and Mexico.

[20] Kennan–Tito memcon, Brioni, 17 July 1961, in “Belgrade Conference 7/61–11/61” folder, box WH-25, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. Papers (AMSP), JFKL.

[21] See Belgrade embtel no. 115 (Kennan), 31 July 1961 (2 pts.), and Belgrade embtel no. 116 (Kennan), 1 August 1961, both in “Belgrade Conference 7/61–11/61” folder, box WH-25, AMSP, JFKL, and in “Yugoslavia – General – 1/61–8/61” folder, box 209A, NSF:CO, JFKL.

[22] Cable from Brazilian Embassy, Belgrade (Couto) to Brazilian Foreign Ministry, tel. no. 90, 8 August 1961.

[23] Cable from Brazilian Foreign Ministry (Arinos) to Brazilian Embassy, Belgrade, tel. no. 58, 11 August 1961.

[24] See cables from Brazilian Foreign Ministry to Brazilian embassies in Bogota (tel. no. 86), Buenos Aires (tel. no. 252), Lima (tel. no. 98), Mexico City (tel. no. 136), and Quito (tel. no. 76), all 11 August 1961.

[25] See Mexico City embtels (Mann) no. 406 (10 August 1961) and no. 416 (11 August 1961), both in 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA; and Brazilian Embassy, Mexico City (Pio Corrêa) to Brazilian Foreign Ministry, tel. no. 168, 16 August 1961.

[26] Amembassy Belgrade (Lisle), Airgram A-45, 24 August 1961, 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA II.

[27] Mexico City embtel no. 538 (Mann), 23 August 1961, 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA; “Bail Nehru Out”: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., to President Kennedy, “Subject: Belgrade Conference”, 3 August 1961, in 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA.

[28] Brazilian embassy in Mexico City (Paulo da Costa Franco) to Brazilian Foreign Ministry, tel. no. 174, 29 August 1961.

[29] Brazilian embassy in Belgrade (Couto) to Brazilian Foreign Ministry, tel. no. 95, 20 August 1961.

[30] Brazilian embassy in Belgrade (Couto) to Brazilian Foreign Ministry, tel. no. 95, 20 August 1961.

[31] See Rio de Janeiro embtel 422 (Bond), no. 422, 21 August 1961, 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA, and British Embassy, Rio de Janeiro (Sir G. Wallinger) to Foreign Office (FO), No. 187, 22 August 1961, in FO 371/161219, The National Archives (formerly the Public Record Office), Kew Gardens, England (hereafter TNA/PRO).

[32] Brazilian embassy in Belgrade (Couto) to Brazilian Foreign Ministry, tel. no. 98, 23 August 1961.

[33] Brazilian embassy in Belgrade (Couto) to Brazilian Foreign Ministry, tel. no. 99, 23 August 1961.

[34] See British Embassy, Rio de Janeiro (Sir G. Wallinger) to FO, no. 190, 24 August 1961, and British Embassy, Belgrade (Sir M. Creswell) to FO, No. 612, 26 August 1961, both in FO 371/161219, TNA/PRO. On Sr. de Mello-Franco's background, see British Embassy, Berne to Central Department, FO, 30 August 1961 (1075/61), in FO 371/161218, TNA/PRO, which quoted an assessment by the British High Commissioner of him as ‘something of a lightweight, but … well informed in political matters, his brother being the Foreign Minister, and he and his wife are friendly and entertain well’.

[35] See Foreign Ministry memorandum, “Policy of Brazil in Relation to Cuba,” secret, September 1961, in ANEXO Secreto – 600.(24h) – SITUAÇÃO POLITICOS. – 1958 1961, Brazilian Foreign Ministry archives, Brasília, and “U.S. Stand Wins Praise in Brazil,” NYT, 11 September 1961, 11.

[36] Belgrade embtel no. 328 (Kennan), 31 August 1961, 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA.

[37] See Rio de Janeiro embtel no. 370 (Bond), 30 August 1961, 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA; British Embassy, Rio de Janeiro (Sir G. Wallinger) to FO, No. 220, 29 August 1961, FO 371/161219, TNA/PRO; and British Embassy, Berne (Mr. Rooke) to FO, No. 255, 30 August 1961, FO 371/161218, TNA/PRO.

[38] Belgrade embtel no. 318 (Kennan), 31 August 1961, 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA.

[39] Bern embtel no. 121 (Kretzmann), 31 August 1961, 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA.

[40] State Department telegram (deptel) no. 568, 1 September 1961, in 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA.

[41] Belgrade embtel no. 344 (Kennan), 1 September 1961, in 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA.

[42] Belgrade embtel no. 350 (Kennan), 1 September 1961, in 396.1-BE, box 732, CDF, RG 59, NA.

[43] See Foreign Ministry memorandum, ‘Policy of Brazil in Relation to Cuba’, secret, September 1961, in ANEXO Secreto – 600.(24h) – SITUAÇÃO POLITICOS. – 1958 1961, Brazilian Foreign Ministry archives, Brasília; “U.S. Stand Wins Praise in Brazil,” NYT, 11 September 1961, 11; Amembassy Rio de Janeiro, Airgram A-146, 16 September 1961, 396.1-BE, box 733, CDF, RG 59, NA.

[44] See Hershberg, “The United States, Brazil, and the Cuban Missile Crisis (Parts 1 & 2).”

[45] Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. to President, “Subject: Belgrade Conference,” 3 August 1961, in “Belgrade Conference 7/61-11/61” folder, box WH-25, AMSP, JFKL.

[46] On Yugoslav post-conference bitterness at the paltry Latin American turnout, see Amembassy Belgrade, Despatch no. 262, “The Belgrade Conference in Retrospect,” 14 November 1961, 5, in “Belgrade Conference 7/61–11/61” folder, box WH-25, AMS Papers, JFKL.

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James G. Hershberg

James G. Hershberg is Associate Professor of History and International Affairs at George Washington University; former director of the Wilson Center's Cold War International History Project; author of James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the Making of the Nuclear Age (Knopf, 1993; Stanford UP, 1995) and various articles on Cold War and nuclear history; and is currently writing a book on the Vietnam War.