The perceived threat of hegemonism in Romania during the second détente

Abstract

The 1964 Romanian ‘Declaration of independence from Moscow’ signalled a change in Romania's foreign policy, widely argued to have been anti-Soviet after that date. Based on new archive materials, this article shows however that Romania's foreign policy should not be understood as anti-Soviet, but rather in terms of anti-hegemonism. Romania opposed and feared both the Soviet and American hegemonic tendencies, and their foreign policy decisions were very much influenced by these views. To exemplify the Romanian anti-hegemonic perceptions and policies, the article presents Romania's definitions on détente and the related Romanian goals in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 1973–75. It concludes that in terms of state politics and security threats, during the 1960s and 1970s, Romania saw the Cold War opposition not as an East–West, socialist–capitalist one, but rather as superpowers/great powers versus all the other powers. Furthermore, for Romania, détente represented a threat because it created the context for the hegemons to agree once again upon the fate of ‘the others’, negatively affecting their interests. The article also reveals the limits of the objectivist approach in dealing with different Cold War issues, and proposes a perceptual approach. It also opens further discussion of how leaders' perceptions influenced Romania's foreign policy decision making during that time.

Notes

Elena Dragomir has studied history in Romania and Finland. She is a PhD candidate at the University of Helsinki, Finland, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Social Science History. She specialises in Cold War studies, especially Communist Romania's foreign policy and the CSCE.

 [1] Ungureanu, Despre Securitate: România, Ţara ‘Ca şi Cum’, 94.

 [2] Funderburk, Pinstripes and Reds, 41–53.

 [3] Socor, ‘The Limits of National Independence in the Soviet Bloc’, 701–32.

 [4] Gilberg, Nationalism and Communism in Romania, 209

 [5] Lampe, Balkans into Southeastern Europe, 201.

 [6] Deletant, Communist Terror in Romania, 269–84; Deletant, Ceausescu and the Securitate, 52–71; Deletant and Ionescu, Romania and the Warsaw Pact: 1955–1989, 16–22; Ionescu, ‘Romania, Ostpolitik and the CSCE’, 139; Roper, Romania: The Unfinished Revolution, 41.

 [7] Boldur-Latescu, The Communist Genocide in Romania, 49; Granville, ‘Dej-a-vu: Early Roots of Romania's Independence’, 366; Busky, Communism in History and Theory, the European Experience, 23.

 [8] Forrest, ‘Romania’, 1075, 1077.

 [9] Forrest, ‘Nicolae Ceausescu’, 185–6.

[10] King, History of the Romanian Communist Party, 135–6.

[11] Tismaneanu, Stalinism for all Seasons, 182.

[12] Tismaneanu, Stalinism for all Seasons, 182, 179–81.

[13] See for instance, Salagean, ‘The Period of Destalinization in Romanian Culture, 1959–1965’.

[14] King, History of the Romanian Communist Party, 135–6.

[15] Deletant, ‘Taunting the Bear: Romania and the Warsaw Pact, 1963–89’, 496.

[16] Yearbook for the International Law Commission, 1949 , Summary Records and Documents of the First Session including the report of the Commission to the General Assembly, 287.

[17] Reinalda, ‘Organization Theory and the Autonomy of the International Labor Organization’, 42–3.

[18] Nicholas Tarling, Nations and States in Southeast Asia, 85–6.

[19] ANIC, CC of RCP, Office, File no 4/1963, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers’ Party, 26–27 February 1963, 6–135.

[20] ANIC, CC of RCP, Office, File no 4/1963, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 26–27 February 1963, 6–135.

[21] Paul Niculescu-Mizil was the head of the Propaganda and Agitation Section of the CC of RCP (1956–68); minister of education (1972–76); minister of finances (1972–81); vice-prime-minister (1972–81); member of the CC of RCP (1955–89) and member of the Executive Committee of the CC of RCP (1965–89).

[22] ‘Convorbire cu Nedic Lemnaru. Televiziunea Română. Emisiunea “Pro-Memoria” [Dialogue with Nedic Lemnaru. Romanian Television. The broadcasting “Pro-Memory”]’, in Niculescu-Mizil, O istorie traita, Memorii I, 43.

[23] See supra, note 20.

[24] See for instance, The Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (AMAE), Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5138, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035190 of 10.03.1973 to George Macovescu, 84–90; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5145, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035160 of 2.03.1973 to George Macovescu, 22-25; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5145, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035198 of 11.03.1973 to George Macovescu, 34–48; AMAE, Problema 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035043 of 21.01.1973 to George Macovescu, 10–11; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035084, of 30.01.1973 to George Macovescu, 34–35; AMAE, Problema 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M.Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.195 of 11.03.1973 to George Macovescu, 76–81; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M.Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.360 of 6.04.1973 to George Macovescu, 95–101

[25] AMAE, Problema 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5145, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035198 of 11.03.1973 to George Macovescu, 46–47; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035.122 of 11.02.1973 to George Macovescu, 52.

[26] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.360 of 6.04.1973 to George Macovescu, 98; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5953, Informare referiroare la încheierea CSCE, singed George Macovescu, to CC of RCP, dated 25.03.1975, 37.

[27] The National Central Historical Archives (ANIC), Fund Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP) – Office, File no. 120/1973, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP), 2 July 1973, 118–19.

[28] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.360 of 6.04.1973 to George Macovescu, 95–8; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5953 George Macovescu, Information concerning the conclusion of the CSCE addressed to CC of RCP, dated 25. 03.1975, 32.

[29] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5124, Nicolae Ecobescu's telegram no. 0084015 of 11.01.1973 from Washington to George Macovescu, 128–33.

[30] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035043 of 21.01.1973 to George Macovescu, 10–13.

[31] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5145, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.160 of 2.03.1973 to George Macovescu, 23, 26; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5145, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035198 of 11.03.1973 to George Macovescu, 47.

[32] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5145, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035198 of 11.03.1973 to George Macovescu, 34–48.

[33] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5145, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035433 of 3.05.1973 to George Macovescu, 118–19.

[34] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035043 of 21.01.1973 to George Macovescu, 10–13.

[35] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035.122 of 11.02.1973 to George Macovescu, 47.

[36] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.360 of 6.04.1973 to George Macovescu, 95.

[37] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5953, V. Lipatti, Proposal note addressed to G. Macovescu, dated May 1975, 111.

[38] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.195 of 11.03.1973 to George Macovescu, 78.

[39] Garthoff, A Journey through the Cold War, 149–50; see also supra note 20.

[40] Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, 512.

[41] The term ‘minor powers’ in this article defines all the states that are not ‘great powers’ or ‘superpowers’. The Romanian leaders of the time used to name the ‘minor powers’ through the wording ‘small and middle states’. All the states that were not ‘superpowers’ or ‘great powers’ were in the Romanian political language of that time, according to the communist archive sources, ‘small and middle states’. For a detailed analysis on the ‘minor powers’ term, see for instance Wight and Bull, Power Politics, 61–6, or Short, An Introduction to Political Geography, 76.

[42] Elgström and Jerneck, ‘From Adaptation to Foreign Policy Activism’, 190.

[43] David Vital, The Survival of Small States: Studies in Small Power/Great Power Conflict.

[44] Dahl, ‘To be or not to be Neutral: Swedish Security Strategy in the Post-Cold War Era’, 178–9. On the other hand, the polarisation theory views the situation from a different angle, emphasising the great power need for tighter control of other states (allies and others) as bipolar tension is on the rise. According to this interpretation, for those small states that live within the sphere of influence of a great power, freedom of action may appear quite limited in times of high tension.

[45] Jahn, ‘The Foreign–Domestic Nexus in Gorbachev's Central and East-European Policy’, 166.

[46] Hutchings, Soviet–East European Relations, 97.

[47] Anton, Ieşirea din cerc. Politica externă a regimului Gheorgiu-Dej, 116.

[48] Anton, Ieşirea din cerc. Politica externă a regimului Gheorgiu-Dej, 15.

[49] Ionescu, ‘Romania, Ostpolitik and the CSCE’.

[50] ANIC, CC of RCP, Office, File no 4/1963, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 26–27 February 1963, 6-135; ANIC, CC of RCP – Foreign Relations Section, File 29/1964, The Minutes of the Talks between the CC of the RWP Delegation and the CC of the Chinese Communist Party Delegation, 3–10 March 1964, Beijing, 1-124; ANIC, CC of RCP – Office, File 17/1965, The Minutes of the Meeting of the PB from 3rd of April 1963, 5–24.

[51] See, for instance, AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.360 of 6.04.1973 from Helsinki to George Macovescu, 99; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5953, George Macovescu, Information concerning the conclusion of the CSCE, addressed to the CC of RCP, dated 25.03.1975, 36–37; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5953, V. Lipatti, Nota de propuneri [Proposal note] addressed to G. Macovescu, dated May 1975, 111.

[52] See, for instance, Bowker and Williams, Superpower Detente: A Reappraisal, 90; Galbreath, The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), 37; Heraclides, Security and Co-operation in Europe, 42.

[53] ANIC, CC of RCP, Office, File no 120/1973, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP), 2 July 1973, 16.

[54] ANIC, CC of RCP, Office, File no 120/1973, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP), 2 July 1973, 22.

[55] See, for instance, AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.360 of 6.04.1973 from Helsinki to George Macovescu, 99; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5953, George Macovescu, Information concerning the Conclusion of the CSCE, addressed to the CC of RCP, dated 25.03.1975, 36–7; AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5953, V. Lipatti, Nota de propuneri [Proposal note] addressed to G. Macovescu, dated May 1975, 111.

[56] ANIC, CC of RCP – Office, File no 110/1970, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of the CC of RCP from 03.12.1970, concerning the Political Committee of the WTO Countries, Berlin, 2 December 1970, 2–13.

[57] ANIC, CC of RCP – Office, File no 9/1972, Nicolae Ceausescu's Speech at the Meeting of the Political Consultative Committee of the WTO states (Prague, 25th of January 1972), 23.

[58] ANIC, CC of RCP, Section: Office, File no 120/1973, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP), 2 July 1973, 17.

[59] ANIC, CC of RCP, Section: Office, File no 120/1973, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP), 2 July 1973, 15–16.

[60] ANIC, CC of RCP, Section: Office, File no 120/1973, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP), 2 July 1973, 57–8.

[61] ANIC, CC of RCP, Section: Office, File no 120/1973, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP), 2 July 1973, 16–22.

[62] Emil Bodnaras was an important communist figure; member of the CC of RCP, minister of national defense, minister of transportation and communications, vice-president of the State Council, vice-president of the council of ministers.

[63] ANIC, CC of RCP – Office, File no 120/1973, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP), 2 July 1973, 115–16.

[64] ANIC, CC of RCP – Office, File no 120/1973, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP), 2 July 1973, 112–13.

[65] ANIC, CC of RCP – Office, File no 120/1973, The Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Committee of Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC of RCP), 2 July 1973, 117–19.

[66] See infra note 69.

[67] ANIC, CC of RCP – Office, File no 126/1972, The Principles of Security and Cooperation. Romania's Working Document, dated November 1972, 28.

[68] Verona and Talpa, Conferinta pentru Securitate si Cooperare in Europa, 9–15.

[69] Lipatti, ‘Dipoli, bătălia pentru consens’, 48–51.

[70] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5145, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.256 of 20.03.1973 from Helsinki to George Macovescu, 60–61.

[71] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5145, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.198 of 11.03.1973 from Helsinki to George Macovescu, 34–48.

[72] Lipatti, ‘Rotaţie şi consens la Cercul Polar, 58–60. See also, AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035.122 of 11.02.1973 from Helsinki to George Macovescu, 43–46.

[73] Lipatti, 1999, 58–60.

[74] Deletant and Ionescu, Romania and the Warsaw Pact, 88.

[75] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035.122 of 11.02.1973 from Helsinki to George Macovescu, 58; AMAE, Problema 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.360 of 6.04.1973 from Helsinki to George Macovescu, 101.

[76] Superpower détente was also perceived as a danger by the Western world.

[77] Ionescu, ‘Romania, Ostpolitik and the CSCE, 1965–1975’.

[78] ANIC, CC of RCP – Office, File no 2/1973, The Completion of the Directives for the Romanian Delegation to the Preparatory Reunion of CSCE (stage III), Helsinki, 15.01.1973, 37–8.

[79] Romanian delegates at the CSCE indirectly appreciated that this objective has been reached. In October 1973 in a telegram sent from Geneva to Bucharest, Valenti Lipatti wrote: ‘small and middle countries of NATO and EEC react more actively to the pressures of the USA which want them to abstain from approaching the matter of the military aspects of security. These states are influenced in some degree also by the position of the neutral and non-aligned states such as Sweden, Finland, Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia. Many occidental delegates have told us that they have informed in positive reports their capitals about the Romanian proposals and asked for permission to support our proposals, especially our proposals concerning the military aspects of security. The Finnish delegation supported Romanian and Yugoslav proposals on this matter.’ AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5126, Valentin Lipatti's telegram no. 031188 of 26.10.1973 from Helsinki to George Macovescu, 65–7.

[80] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5953, V. Lipatti, Proposal note addressed to G. Macovescu, dated May 1975, 111.

[81] See, for instance, AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 035.360 of 6.04.1973 from Helsinki to George Macovescu, 99–102.

[82] AMAE, Problem 241/1973-9.S.7, file 5146, M. Balanescu, V. Lipatti, C. Vlad's telegram no. 0035.122 of 11.02.1973 from Helsinki to George Macovescu, 47.