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Abstract
With President Truman's ‘Campaign of Truth’ in the 1950s, Voice of America (VOA) established itself as one of the most important information programmes of the US government. The $20 million budget allocated to VOA in those years enabled it to employ about 1900 people and to broadcast in 45 different languages. Italy, with its strong and threatening Communist Party, was one of VOA's main targets. However, audience research (performed by the United States Information Agency's Italian branch and by the Italian opinion poll company Doxa) shows that the Italians always preferred their own national network RAI. The US government therefore started to target the RAI, with the aim of placing VOA-produced programmes directly on the Italian network in order to reach a mass audience. This article looks into what went on both ‘on’ and ‘off the air’, analysing how various Italian ‘target groups’ were addressed by VOA. Drawing on documents from the National Archives and Records Administration in both Washington DC and New York City, and from the Doxa archives in Milan, the study examines how the American government prepared to conquer the Italian network RAI.
Notes
Simona Tobia is the author of Advertising America: The United States Information Service in Italy (1945–1956), a monograph on the cultural and diplomatic relations between the United States and Italy in the Cold War. Simona currently works at the School of Languages and European Studies of the University of Reading, where she contributes to the AHRC project Languages at War, and she teaches European History.
[1] CitationNye, The Paradox of American Power, 15.
[2] D'Attore, Nemici; Nye, Paradox; CitationEllwood, L'alleato nemico; CitationPizarroso Quintero, Stampa, radio e propaganda.
[3] CitationBarrett, Truth is our Weapon; CitationBogart, Premises for Propaganda; CitationCowan Shulman, The Voice of America; CitationDizard, The Strategy of Truth; CitationEsterline and Esterline, Innocents Abroad; CitationHeil, Voice of America; CitationHenderson, The United States Information Agency; CitationKrugler, The Voice of America; CitationPirsein, The Voice of America.
[4] Pirsein, The Voice of America; Heil, Voice of America; Cowan Shulman, The Voice of America; Krugler, The Voice of America.
[5] USIA, America's Overseas Information Program, Washington 1958, in Pirsein, The Voice of America, 58; Heil, Voice of America, 32.
[6] Krugler, The Voice of America, 35.
[7] Public Law 402, The United States Informational and Educational Exchange Act of 1948, also known as Smith–Mundt Act.
[8] Krugler, The Voice of America, 49.
[9] NARA, RG59, Lot/Office Files, Entry 1559, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs – Records Relating to International Information Administration Activities (IIA), 1938–53, Box 195, The United States Plan for International Broadcasting, 1950, 3.
[10] NARA RG 59 Lot/Office Files, Entry 1392, National Security Policy and Guidance Staff, 1947–54, Box 2, Summary of Target Group Media Relationship by Country, December 1950.
[11] Argentina, Brazil, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Cuba and Venezuela.
[12] Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Haiti, Peru and Uruguay.
[13] Paraguay, Honduras, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Nicaragua.
[14] NARA RG 59 Lot/Office Files, Entry 1392, National Security Policy and Guidance Staff, 1947–54, Box 2, Summary of Target Group Media Relationship by Country, December 1950, 9.
[15] NARA, RG 306, Entry 1008, Miscellaneous Reports, 1950–53, Box 1, Analysis of the ‘Voice’ Broadcasts to Russia, Poland, Germany and Italy, November 1950, 1–2.
[16] NARA, RG 306, Entry 1009 A, Records of the USIA – Office of Research – Special Reports 1953–63, Box 8, A Study of USIA Operating Assumptions, December 1954; Bogart, Premises for Propaganda.
[17] NARA, RG 306, Entry 1007 C, Office of Research, Classified Research Project Reports, Box 3, U.S. Wartime Propaganda – The Role of the Propaganda Planner, 29 August 1950, W. Phillips Davison, Rand Corporation.
[18] NARA, RG 306, Entry 1008, Miscellaneous Reports, 1950–53, Box 1, Analysis of the ‘Voice’ Broadcasts to Russia, Poland, Germany and Italy, November 1950, 3.
[19] NARA, RG 59 Lot/Office Files, Entry 1392 National Security Policy and Guidance Staff 1947–54, Box 2, Summary of Priority Targets and Priority Media Within Major Areas of Concern, 7 April 1950.
[20] NARA, RG 59 Lot/Office Files, Entry 1392 National Security Policy and Guidance Staff 1947–54, Box 2, Summary of Priority Targets and Priority Media Within Major Areas of Concern, 7 April 1950
[21] NARA, RG 306, Entry 1008, Miscellaneous Reports, 1950–53, Box 1, Analysis of the ‘Voice’ Broadcasts to Russia, Poland, Germany and Italy, November 1950, 6.
[22] NARA, RG 306, Entry 1008, Miscellaneous Reports, 1950–53, Box 1, Analysis of the ‘Voice’ Broadcasts to Russia, Poland, Germany and Italy, November 1950, 9.
[23] NARA, RG 306, Entry 1008, Miscellaneous Reports, 1950–53, Box 1, Analysis of the ‘Voice’ Broadcasts to Russia, Poland, Germany and Italy, November 1950
[24] Walter Roberts, former Associate Director of USIA, interview with the author, March 2006.
[25] This programme does not appear on VOA's programme schedule until 1947, but the examination of the Radiocorriere reveals that it was on RAI's schedule from 27 December 1945.
[26] ‘Se domandate a uno degli innumerevoli turisti che vengono in ogni stagione, e specialmente d'estate, a veder New York, quali sono le “sights”, i punti d'interesse che si propongono di visitare, vi menzioneranno per primo forse il Rockefeller Center, poi Broadway o l'Empire State Building, o la Statua della Libertà; ma al terzo o quarto posto verrà indubbiamente una visita al Waldorf Astoria, il colosso alberghiero di New York, d'America e del mondo. E se interessa milioni di americani, riteniamo che possa interessare conoscerlo anche ai nostri ascoltatori’. NARA Northeast Region, New York, RG 306, Samples of Broadcast Master Scripts for Calendar Years 1948–54, Box 828 218 A – 1948, Cronache d'America – Aspetti di vita Americana.
[27] Between 1948 and 1949, the daily duration of programmes was continually changed because of VOA's budget problems.
[28] Headlines is the title that indicates these news items, consisting of only a few lines, on VOA's scripts.
[29] Cf. NARA RG 306, Entry 69, VOA Program Schedule 1950–53.
[30] The Congress approved a 115 million dollar budget for fiscal year 1952, and the informational programme could therefore be considered well established by then. Cf. CitationTobia Advertising America, 101–19.
[31] Pirsein, The Voice of America, 329–30.
[32] Cf. NARA RG 306, Samples of Broadcast Master Scripts for Calendar Years 1948–54 – Italian Section.
[33] The original title was Chronicle of America.
[34] In English the programme was titled This is the USA.
[35] NARA Northeast Region, New York, RG 306, Samples of Broadcast Master Scripts for Calendar Years 1948–54, Box 841 231 – 1949, Profili americani. This programme, however, cannot be found in VOA's scheduling supplied to the Radiocorriere.
[36] ‘Queste notizie, comunque si facciano strada attraverso la saracinesca eretta dalle autorità e dalla polizia comunista, ci portano chiaro il grido di dolore degli uomini e delle donne che languono all'ombra della falce e del martello’. NARA Northeast Region, New York, RG 306, Samples of Broadcast Master Scripts for Calendar Years 1948–54, Box 876 271 A – 1951, Behind the Curtain – Dietro la Cortina, 1951.
[37] Cf. NARA, RG 306, Entry 69, VOA Program Schedule 1950–53.
[38] In city councils with a population of from 2000 to 50,000 inhabitants, listeners of foreign programmes ranged between 51.5% and 56.3%, with the sole exception of councils with a population of 5–10,000 people, which had a percentage of 47.5% listeners.
[39] Doxa, ‘Radioascoltatori’, in Bollettino n. 5, 1947, Milano.
[40] Pirsein, The Voice of America, 154.
[41] NARA, RG 306, Entry 1007 A, Reports by International Evaluation Staff (IES) 1948–53, Box 34 – Italy, Italy Media Impact Study, a Survey Carried out by Dr. Eric Stern, Foreign Opinion and Market Research, New York, 1950.
[42] VOA was transmitting on shortwave from New York and on medium wave from Munich and Trieste relays, which were owned by the United States.
[43] NARA, RG 306, Entry 1015, Country Project Files 1951–64, Box 51, A BBC/VOA Italian Survey, 1953, 10.
[44] CitationResta, ‘Le abitudini di ascolto’.
[45] The United States Information Agency was created as a governmental agency independent from the State Department in 1953 and it was based in Washington; its overseas branches continued to be called USIS.
[46] Resta, ‘Le abitudini di ascolto’, 7. This document refers to ‘USIS programs’. This definition includes both VOA programmes re-broadcast by RAI (which received them through the Rome USIS), and other programmes produced either in cooperation with, or using material provided by the USIS (these were certainly not VOA programmes, because their titles do not appear in the VOA script, nor do they appear in the bi-monthly publication La Voce dell'America, containing all VOA programme schedules, which specified which programmes were aired directly on VOA's frequencies and which on RAI's, along with their hours and channels). As the quoted research had been commissioned from Doxa by RAI, the phrase ‘USIS programs’ does not include programmes in Italian broadcast by VOA on its own frequencies, which by that time were on the air for only 15 minutes a day, and were destined to be cancelled within a year.
[47] Also known as Radio University.
[48] NARA, RG 306, Entry 38, Res Report USIS Posts 1950–64, Box 3, Doxa, The Radio Audience in Italy. An Analysis of Two Public Opinion Studies on Radio Listening, June 1956, 8–10.
[49] NARA, RG 306, Entry 38, Res Report USIS Posts 1950–64, Box 3, Doxa, The Radio Audience in Italy. An Analysis of Two Public Opinion Studies on Radio Listening, June 1956, 8–10, 14.
[50] Pirsein, The Voice of America, 205–12.
[51] NARA, RG 59 Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Foreign Service Despatch – Evidence of Effectiveness: Broadcasting, 9 June 1950.
[52] NARA, RG 59 Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Foreign Service Despatch – Evidence of Effectiveness: Broadcasting, 10 January 1951, 2.
[53] NARA, RG59, Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Department Circular Airgram – Radio Advertising and Publicity, 28 November 1950, 2.
[54] NARA, RG59, Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Department Circular Airgram – Radio Advertising and Publicity, 28 November 1950, 2
[55] NARA, RG59, Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Department Circular Airgram – Radio Advertising and Publicity, 28 November 1950, 2, 3.
[56] NARA, RG 59 Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Foreign Service Despatch – Evidence of Effectiveness: Broadcasting, 10 January 1951, 2–3.
[57] NARA, RG 59, Lot/Office Files, Entry 1559, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs – Records Relating to International Information Administration (IIA), 1938–53, Box 196, International Broadcasting Service, IIA, Division of Radio Program Evaluation, VOA Evaluation Report no. 18, 15 May 1952.
[58] Counselor for Public Affairs at the American embassy in Rome, who was also director of USIS in Italy.
[59] NARA, RG 59 Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Foreign Service Despatch – Production for Italian Service, 14 March 1952.
[60] NARA, RG 59 Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Foreign Service Despatch – Production for Italian Service, 14 March 1952
[61] NARA, RG 59 Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Foreign Service Despatch – IBS: VOA Shortwave to Italy, 26 June 1952; NARA, RG 59 Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Foreign Service Despatch - Proposed Reduction in Italian Service, VOA, 20 May 1953.
[62] NARA, RG 59 Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Foreign Service Despatch – Production for Italian Service, 14 March 1952.
[63] NARA, RG 59 Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Foreign Service Despatch – IBS: VOA Production for Italian Radio (RAI), 22 June 1953.
[64] NARA, RG 59 Central Decimal File, Class 511.65 4 – International Information and Educational Relations, Cultural Affairs and Psychological Warfare – Radiobroadcasting (e.g. Voice of America), Box 2470, Foreign Service Despatch – USIA IBS/NY Shortwave Versus Production for RAI, 7 August 1953.