‘White on the outside but red on the inside’: Switzerland and Chinese intelligence networks during the Cold War

ABSTRACT

Using previously classified archival records, this article discusses how Chinese diplomatic staff operated a variety of intelligence networks from Switzerland during the Cold War. As the site of China’s first diplomatic mission in central Western Europe and the location of the United Nations’ European headquarters, Switzerland was uniquely suited as China’s intelligence hub in Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. Chinese officials established and ran a variety of European and even global intelligence networks out of Switzerland, whose members included Chinese officials; Taiwanese diplomats; Chinese, Taiwanese, and Chinese Indonesian scientists and students; owners and staff of Chinese restaurants; Communists and communist sympathisers; and businessmen.

KEYWORDS:

• China
• intelligence
• espionage
• Switzerland
• Europe
• Cold War
• United Nations

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

¹ Jess Gorkin, “Red China’s Spy Centre,” Parade, 22 November 1964.

² Polizei-Inspektorat Basel, “Tätigkeit der chinesischen Kommunisten in der Schweiz,” 3 April 1951, E4320B#1981/141#231*, Swiss Federal Archives (SFA), Bern, Switzerland.

³ T. Laslo, “Red China’s Tentacles Reach into Europe,” Irish Independent, 23 January 1967.

⁴ Zimmermann to Loosli, 6 July 1965, E2001E#1978/84#2315*, SFA; Meyer, “Chinesische Spionageschule in Bern,” 30 January 1958, E4320B#1981/141#232*, SFA; Dumont to Amstein, 9 September 1963, E2001E#1976/17#2071*, SFA.

⁵ William C. Hannas, James Mulvenon, and Anna B. Puglisi, Chinese Industrial Espionage: Technology Acquisition and Military Modernization (Abingdon: Routledge, 2013), 186.

⁶ Nicholas Eftimiades, Chinese Intelligence Operations (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 1994); Peter L. Mattis, “Assessing Western Perspectives on Chinese Intelligence,” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 25, no. 4 (2012): 678–99.

⁷ Hannas, Mulvenon, and Puglisi, Chinese Industrial Espionage.

⁸ Hannas, Mulvenon, and Puglisi, Chinese Industrial Espionage, 189–92; Mattis, “Chinese Intelligence,” 680–1.

⁹ Ariane Knüsel, “Swiss Counterintelligence and Chinese Espionage in the Cold War,” Journal of Cold War Studies, forthcoming.

¹⁰ Petitpierre, “Speech to the National Council’s Commision of Foreign Affairs,” 24 February 1948, dodis.ch/5562. See also Marina Schaufelbuehl, Marco Wyss, and Sandra Bott, “Choosing Sides in the Global Cold War. Switzerland, Neutrality and the Divided States of Vietnam and Korea,” International History Review 37, no. 5 (2015): 1014–36.

¹¹ This article uses the Pinyin system to spell all Chinese names that could be identified; “Réponse à la question écrite NICOLE du 26 octobre 1949,” 26 October 1949, E2001E#1976/113#2130*, SFA. See also: Ariane Knüsel, Framing China: Media Images and Political Debates in Britain, the USA and Switzerland, 1900–1950 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012).

¹² Petitpierre to Mao, 17 January 1950, E2001E#1967/113#2130*, SFA; Rüfenacht, “Rapport,” 5 December 1950, E4320B#1981/141#231*, SFA; Mao and Zhou to Petitpierre, 18 September 1950, in 解密外交文献: 中华人民共和国建交档案 1949–1955 Jiemi waijiao wenxian: Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jianjiao dang’an, 1949–1955, ed. 亷正保, 王景堂, 黄韬鹏 Lian Zhengbao, Wang Jingtang, and Huang Taopeng (北京 Beijing: 中国画报出版社 Zhongguo huabao chubanshe, 2006), 408; “Sitzung des Bundesrates vom 11.3.1954,” 11 March 1954, E2001E#1976/17#2085*, SFA; Dominicé to Bernoulli, 13 January 1956, E2200.174–02#1968/3#28*, SFA.

¹³ Ariane Knüsel, “Small Country – Great Importance: Switzerland and the Chinese Presence in Europe during the 1950s and 1960s,” in Europe and China in the Cold War: Exchanges Beyond the Bloc Logic and the Sino-Soviet Split, ed. Marco Wyss, Janick Marina Schaufelbuehl, and Valeria Zanier (Leiden: Brill, 2018).

¹⁴ Jeremy Friedman, Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2015); Lorenz M. Lüthi, The Sino-Soviet Split: Cold War in the Communist World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).

¹⁵ Anthony Mann, “Wave of Spy Activity in Switzerland,” Sunday Telegraph, 12 February 1961.

¹⁶ Grey to Earl of Home, 23 February 1961, FO 371/161089, The National Archives, Kew (TNA).

¹⁷ 李斐仪 Li Feiyi, “忆出使瑞士的冯铉Yi chushi ruishi de Feng Xuan,” in 当代中国使节外交生涯Dangdai zhongguo shijie waijiao shengya, vol. 1 (Beijing: 世界知识出版社 Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1995), 173–4; Knüsel, “Small Country.”

¹⁸ “Botschaft des Bundesrates an die Bundesversammlung zum Entwurf eines Bundesbeschlusses betreffend den Schutz der Sicherheit der Eidgenossenschaft und die Erweiterung der Bundesanwaltschaft,” 29 April 1935, Bundesblatt 1, no. 18 (1935): 742–8.

¹⁹ “Aktion W.O.N.,” January 1966, E4320C#1994/78#770*, SFA; “Zwischenbericht zur Sicherheitspolitik vom 3. Dezember 1979,” Bundesblatt 1 no. 5 (1980): 363; “Vortrag von Herrn Oberstleutnant Kern über Sicherheitsprobleme anlässlich der Botschaftertagung 1964,” 4 September 1964, dodis.ch/30820. See also: Luc Van Dongen, “De la place de la Suisse dans la ‘guerre froide secrete’ des Etats-Unis, 1943–1975,” Traverse 2 (2009), 55–72; Riccardo Tarli, Operationsgebiet Schweiz: Die dunklen Geschäfte der Stasi (Zürich: Orell Füssli Verlag, 2015).

²⁰ Knüsel, “Swiss Counterintelligence.”

²¹ Caviezel, “Personalbestand der Chinesischen Botschaft in Bern,” 6 January 1958, E4320B#1981/141#232*, SFA.

²² Hunziker, “Personal der chinesischen Botschaft in Bern,” 14 February 1959, E2001E#1976/17#2078*, SFA.

²³ Babey, “Note à l’intention de M. le Procureur général,” 20 July 1962, E4320C#1994/78#800*, SFA. All quotes were translated by the author.

²⁴ Bürgy, “Zusammenfassender Bericht über die mit der chinesischen Botschaft in Verbindung stehenden Personen und Firmen,” 28 January 1964, E4320C#1994/78#755*, SFA.

²⁵ “Bericht der Bundespolizei betreffend ihre Feststellungen über die Tätigkeit der diplomatischen und konsularischen Vertretungen der Volksrepublik China in der Schweiz,” 1 September 1967, E2001E#1978/84#2315*, SFA.

²⁶ Bürgy, “Zusammenfassender Bericht über die mit der chinesischen Botschaft in Verbindung stehenden Personen und Firmen,” 28 January 1964, E4320C#1994/78#755*, SFA. For France’s recognition of China see Garret Martin, “Playing the China Card? Revisiting France’s Recognition of Communist China, 1963–1964,” Journal of Cold War Studies 10, no. 1 (2008): 52–80; Lorenz M. Lüthi, “Rearranging International Relations? How Mao’s China and de Gaulle’s France Recognized Each Other in 1963–1964,” Journal of Cold War Studies 16, no. 1 (2014): 111–45.

²⁷ Bürgy, “Zusammenfassender Bericht über die mit der chinesischen Botschaft in Verbindung stehenden Personen und Firmen,” 28 January 1964, E4320C#1994/78#755*, SFA; Zimmermann to Loosli, 6 July 1965, E2001E#1978/84#2315*, SFA; Caviezel, “TAB Chinesische Botschaft in Bern,” 5 June 1958, E4320B#1981/141#232*, SFA; Keller, “Personalbestand der chinesischen Botschaft,” 16 February 1965, E2001E#1978/84#2317*, SFA; Kohli to Eidgenössische Fremdenpolizei, 2 March 1961, 2001E#1976/17#2085, SFA. See also: Friedman, Shadow Cold War, 25–100; Marisela Connelly and Romero Cornejo Bustamante, China-América Latina: Génesis y desarrollo de sus relaciones (México: El Colegio de México, 1992), 58–83; Leonardo Ruilova, China Popular en America Latina (Quito: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1978), 123–51.

²⁸ 陈佩明 Chen Peiming, “一代新华人奋力 拼搏 创新业 Yidai Xinhua ren fenli pinbo chuangxin ye,” in 走向世界 – 新华社国际报道70年 Zouxiang shijie: Xinhuashe guoji baodao 70 nian, ed. 马生荣编 Ma Shengrong (Beijing: 新华出版社 Xinhua chubanshe，2001), 95.

²⁹ 王树柏 Wang Shubo, “国际新闻报道70年回顾 Guoji xinwen baodao 70 nian huigu,” in 走向世界 – 新华社国际报道70年 Zouxiang shijie: Xinhuashe guoji baodao 70 nian, ed. 马生荣编 Ma Shengrong (Beijing: 新华出版社 Xinhua chubanshe, 2001), 57–9.

³⁰ “国际部大事记 Guójì bù dàshìjì,” in 走向世界 – 新华社国际报道70年 Zouxiang shijie: Xinhuashe guoji baodao 70 nian, ed. 马生荣编 Ma Shengrong (Beijing: 新华出版社Xinhua chubanshe, 2001), 576–7.

³¹ Chinese Embassy to EPD, 29 August 1962, E2001E#1976/17#200*, SFA; Bachofner to Meyer, 15 March 1960, E4320C#1994/78#545*, SFA; Bürgy, “Zusammenfassender Bericht über die mit der chinesischen Botschaft in Verbindung stehenden Personen und Firmen,” 28 January 1964, E4320C#1994/78#755*, SFA.

³² Bürgy, “Zusammenfassender Bericht über die mit der chinesischen Botschaft in Verbindung stehenden Personen und Firmen,” 28 January 1964, E4320C#1994/78#755*, SFA.

³³ Paul D. Moore, “How China Plays the Ethnic Card: Beijing’s Strategy of Targeting Chinese Americans Is Hard to Counter With U.S. Security Defense,” Los Angeles Times, 24 June 1999, http://articles.latimes.com/1999/jun/24/local/me-49832; Nicolas Groffman, “Indian and Chinese espionage,” Defense & Security Analysis 32, no. 2 (2016), 148 (accessed 8 May 2018); Mattis, “Chinese Intelligence,” 680–2; Hannas, Mulvenon, and Puglisi, Chinese Industrial Espionage, 195–9.

³⁴ “Bericht der Bundespolizei betreffend ihre Feststellungen über die Tätigkeit der diplomatischen und konsularischen Vertretungen der Volksrepublik China in der Schweiz,” 1 September 1967, E2001E#1978/84#2315*, SFA.

³⁵ Li to Petitpierre, 10 February 1950, E2001E#1967/113#2130*, SFA; Micheli to Fürst, 22 June 1966, SFA E2001E#1978/84#2318*, SFA; 裴坚章Pei Jianzhang, ed.，中华人民共和国外交, Zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiao shi, vol. 1 (Beijing: 世界知识出版社 Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1994).

³⁶ Ritschard, “Note,” 10 July 1964, E4320C#1994/78#547*, SFA.

³⁷ Micheli to Fürst, 22 June 1966, E2001E#1978/84#2318*, SFA; “Bericht der Bundespolizei betreffend ihre Feststellungen über die Tätigkeit der diplomatischen und konsularischen Vertretungen der Volksrepublik China in der Schweiz,” 1 September 1967, E2001E#1978/84#2315*, SFA; Babey, “Note à l’intention de M. le Procureur général,” 20 July 1962, E4320C#1994/78#800*, SFA.

³⁸ von Moos, “Enquête dirigée contre le ressortissant de la China nationaliste KUO Yu-shou,” 11 March 1966, E2001E#1978/84#2316*, SFA; Eidgenössisches Politisches Department (EPD), “Rapport joint concernant la proposition du Département de justice et police du 11 mars 1966,” E2001E#1978/84#2316*, SFA.

³⁹ Micheli, “Expulsion du Dr Tsung-sing SZE,” 31 March 1966, E2001E#1978/84#2318*, SFA; EPD to Embassy in Beijing, “Telegramm Nr. 23,” 21 March 1966, E2001E#1978/84#2316*, SFA; Bundeskanzlei, “Mitteilung,” 24 March 1966, E2001E#1978/84#2316*, SFA; “Sitzung des Schweizerischen Bundesrates, Auszug aus dem Protokoll,” 21 March 1996, E2001E#1978/84#2318*, SFA; Janner to Keller, 25 March 1966, E2001E#1978/84#2316*, SFA.

⁴⁰ Frederick L. Wettering, “Counterintelligence: The Broken Triad,” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 13, no. 3 (2000), 281.

⁴¹ Janner, “Notice,” E4320C#1994/78#796*, SFA.

⁴² “Bericht der Bundesanwaltschaft über Chen Wen-Kuei,” 12 February 1968, E2001E#1976/17#2071*, SFA.

⁴³ “Note Confidentielle concerne l’activité de l’Ambassade de Chine à Berne,” 4 July 1956, SFA E4320B#1981/141#231*, SFA; Ackerhans, “Rapport,” 4 January 1951, E4320B#1981/141#231*, SFA.

⁴⁴ Hannas, Mulvenon, and Puglisi, Chinese Industrial Espionage, 136–57.

⁴⁵ Babey, “Note à l’intention de M. le Procureur général,” 20 July 1962, E4320C#1994/78#800*, SFA; Polizeidienst, “Abhörungsprotokoll,” 14 March 1963, E4320C#1994/78#608*, SFA; “Note confidentielle concerne l’activité de l’Ambassade de Chine à Berne,” 4 July 1956, E4320B#1981/141#231*, SFA.

⁴⁶ See for example Verbindung IV, “Nachrichtendienstaktivitäten der chinesischen Botschaft in Bern,” E4320C#1994/78#547*, SFA.

⁴⁷ John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai, China Builds the Bomb (Stanford: Stanford University Press 1988), 36–9 and 105–6. For China’s reactions to the embargo see Shu Guang Zhang, Beijing’s Economic Statecraft during the Cold War, 1949–1991 (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2014), 21–95.

⁴⁸ Ackerhans, “Rapport,” 4 January 1951, E4320B#1981/141#231*, SFA.

⁴⁹ Polizeidienst, “Abhörungsprotokoll,” 14 March 1963, E4320C#1994/78#608*, SFA; Bundesanwaltschaft, “Bericht der Bundesanwaltschaft über Chen Wen-Kuei,” 12 February 1968, SFA E2001E#1976/17#2071*, SFA; Bailly, “Rapport,” 31 July 1962, E4320C#1994/78#792*, SFA.

⁵⁰ 李, “忆出使瑞士的冯铉,” 174.

⁵¹ Leuenberger and Stahel, “Politischer Nachrichtendienst, Art. 272 StGB,” 5 January 1968, E2001E#1976/17#2071*, SFA.

⁵² “Aufnahme von tibetischen Flüchtlingen,” 29 March 1963, Dodis.ch/18992; 李清泉, “瑞士七年,” 61. See also: Ariane Knüsel, “‘Armé de la pensée Mao Tsé-toung, on peut résoudre tous les problèmes’: l’influence de la Révolution culturelle sur les relations de la Suisse avec la République populaire de Chine,” Relations Internationales 163, no. 3 (2015): 36–8.

⁵³ Staub, “Tibet-Institut in Rikon/ZH im Tösstal,” 7 November 1968, E4320C#1994/78#770*, SFA; Staub, report, 6 December 1968, E4320C#1994/78#604*, SFA.

⁵⁴ Kommissariat IV, “Notiz,” 5 January 1967, E4320C#1994/78#766*, SFA.

⁵⁵ AFP, “Dutch Move against Chinese Restaurants,” China Mail, 1 December 1965.

⁵⁶ Hefelin to Eidgenössische Fremdenpolizei, 3 December 1965, E4320C#1994/78#695*, SFA.

⁵⁷ Leuenberger, report, 26 July 1968, E4320C#1994/78#695*, SFA.

⁵⁸ “Spionage,” Der Spiegel, 22 August 1966.

⁵⁹ Swiss Embassy in Brussels to EPD, 20 February 1963, E2001E#1976/17#2071*, SFA; La Libre Belgique 25 December 1962; Couenoud, “Restaurants chinois en Belgique,” 31 January 1963, E2001E#1976/17#2071*, SFA; Bühlmann, “Notiz,” 10 April 1961, E4320C#1994/78#766*, SFA.

⁶⁰ Bühlmann, “Notiz,” 22 March 1960, E4320C#1994/78#605*, SFA.

⁶¹ Bühlmann, “Notiz,” 22 March 1960, E4320C#1994/78#605*, SFA.

⁶² Stahel, “Verbindungen zur Botschaft der VR-China, Bern,” 11 November 1968, E4320C#1994/78#695*, SFA.

⁶³ Kommissariat IV, “Notiz. Monatsbericht Nr. 4/1969 der Verbindung IV,” 11 July 1969, E4320C#1994/78#714*, SFA; Pahud to Politische Angelenheiten, 6 January 1964, E2001E#1978/84#2315*, SFA; Blankart, “Protokoll der Sitzun vom 11. September 1967 in Bern, Parlamentsgebäude Zimmer IV,” 27 September 1967, BAR E2200.174#1988/78#53*, SFA. For the friendship associations see Cyril Cordoba, “Au-delà du Rideau de Bambou: amitiés culturelles et politiques avec la République populaire de Chine en Suisse (1949–1989),” PhD project, University of Fribourg, Switzerland.

⁶⁴ Hänzi, “Aktennotiz,” 7 March 1951, E4320B#1981/141#231*, SFA.

⁶⁵ See for example Babey, “Intervention à l’encontre de 3 ressortissants français,” 22 June 1965, E2001E#1978/84#2315*, SFA.

⁶⁶ Personal correspondence with Willy Wottreng, a former leading member of the KPS/ML.

⁶⁷ Babey, “Intervention à l’encontre de 3 ressortissants français,” 22 June 1965, E2001E#1978/84#2315*, SFA; Zimmermann to Swiss Embassy in Beijing, 30 June 1965, E2200.174–02#1981/200#82*, SFA.

⁶⁸ Zimmermann, “Besuchsnotiz,” 26 June 1965, E2200.174–02#1981/200#82*, SFA.

⁶⁹ Bürgy, “Zusammenfassender Bericht über die mit der chinesischen Botschaft in Verbindung stehenden Personen und Firmen,” 28 January 1964, E4320C#1994/78#755*, SFA; Commisariat IV, “Note,” 13 September 1966, E4320C#1994/78#605*, SFA; Naville to Kohli, 22 March 1960, E2300#1000/716#812*, SFA.

⁷⁰ “Bericht der Bundespolizei betreffend ihre Feststellungen über die Tätigkeit der diplomatischen und konsularischen Vertretungen der Volksrepublik China in der Schweiz,” 1 September 1967, E2001E#1978/84#2315*, SFA

⁷¹ See for example Spycher, “Besucher aus Südamerika,” 2 February 1965, E4320C#1994/78#766*, SFA.

⁷² Hannas, Mulvenon, and Puglisi, Chinese Industrial Espionage.

⁷³ Gygax to EPD Politische Angelegenheiten, 29 October 1957, E2001E#1976/17#2085*, SFA; Armory, “EXCON: Semi-Annual Appraisal of Significant Developments in Swiss Politico-Economic Relations with the Sino-soviet Bloc, January 1–20 June 1962,” 1960–1963 CDF, RG 59, Box 1350, 654.60/12–1862, National Archives (USNA) at College Park, MD ; Naville to EPD Politische Angelegenheiten, 5 January 1961, E2001E#1976/17#2085*, SFA; Handelsabteilung to EPD, 1 January 1961, E2001E#1976/17#2085*, SFA.

⁷⁴ Rüfenacht, “Handelsabteilung der Chinesischen Botschaft in Bern,” 23 April 1958, E4320B#1981/141#232*, SFA; Caviezel, “Tätigkeit der Chinesischen Botschaft in Bern,” 22 January 1957, E4320#1981/141#231*, SFA.

⁷⁵ “West-Ost Handel,” 28 July 1951, E2200.174–02#1968/2#94*, SFA; Troendle to Swiss Embassy in Beijing, 19 November 1953, E2200.174–02#1968/2#94*, SFA.

⁷⁶ Handelsabteilung to Rezzonico, 10 December 1951, E2200.174–02#1968/2#94*, SFA; “Aktennotiz,” 4 October 1957, E2001E#1976/17#2118*, SFA; Steutz to Direction de l’Administration militaire fédérale, 29 March 1956, E2001E#1976/17#2118*, SFA; Handelsabteilung to EPD Politische Angelegenheiten, 12 May 1955, E2001E#1976/17#2118*, SFA; Handelsabteilung to Politische Angelegenheiten, 12 July 1957, E2001E#1976/17#2118*, SFA.

⁷⁷ “Bericht der Bundespolizei,” 4 June 1958, E2001E#1976/17#2071*, SFA.

⁷⁸ Eftimiades, Chinese Intelligence Operations, 42.

⁷⁹ Caviezel, “Tätigkeit der Chinesischen Botschaft in Bern,” 20 November 1956, E4320B#1981/141#231*, SFA.

⁸⁰ Ritschard, “Visite des usines Hispano-Suiza à Genève par une délégation chinoise,” 4 March 1945, E4320B#1981/141#232*, SFA.

⁸¹ Petitpierre to Wahlen, 23 February 1959, E2001E#1976/17#2078*, SFA.

⁸² “Betr. Einreise einer chinesischen Wirtschafts- und technischen Delegation,” 7 February 1958, E4320B#1981/141#232*, SFA; Bundespolizei to Sikripo Bern, 29 July 1957, E4320B#1981/141#231*, SFA.

⁸³ Bundespolizei, “Les Services de renseignements et de securité de la Republique Populaire de Chine,” September 1962, E4320C#1994/78#750*, SFA

⁸⁴ Bernoulli to Homberger, 3 April 1957, Vorort Archiv, 380.1.1, Archiv für Zeitgeschichte (AfZ), Zurich, Switzerland.

⁸⁵ Bernoulli, “Le conflit Est-Ouest vu de Pékin,” 7 May 1958.

⁸⁶ Ariane Knüsel, “A Tricky Business: Swiss Perceptions of Informal Imperialism in China in the 1920s,” Journal of Modern Chinese History 2 (2014): 210–29.

⁸⁷ Hannas, Mulvenon, and Puglisi, Chinese Industrial Espionage, 18–47.

⁸⁸ Bernoulli to Bühler, 8 September 1958, dodis.ch/15257.

⁸⁹ Bernoulli to Homberger, 3 April 1957, Vorort Archiv, 380.1.1 (AfZ)

⁹⁰ Bundespolizei, “Les Services de renseignements et de securité de la Republique Populaire de Chine,” September 1962, E4320C#1994/78#750*, SFA.

⁹¹ Keller to Informationsdienst, 28 January 1965, E2001E#1978/84#2384*, SFA; Bernoulli to Bühler, 8 September 1958, dodis.ch/15257.

⁹² Keller, “Politischer Bericht No. 15,” 18 July 1964, E2300#1000/716#815*, SFA (quote); Keller, “Politischer Bericht No. 6,” 9 June 1964, E2300#1000/716#815*, SFA. For the Sino-Soviet split’s effects on China’s nuclear programme see Zhihua Shen and Yafeng Xia, Mao and the Sino-Soviet Partnership, 1945–1959 (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2015), 205–40 and Lüthi, Sino-Soviet Split.

⁹³ Zuoyue Wang, “The Cold War and the Reshaping of Transnational Science in China,” in Science and Technology in the Global Cold War, ed. Naomi Oreskes and John Krige (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2014), 357.

⁹⁴ Hannas, Mulvenon, and Puglisi, Chinese Industrial Espionage; Eftimiades, Chinese Intelligence Operations; Mattis, “Chinese Intelligence.”

⁹⁵ Ariane Knüsel, “Swiss Counterintelligence.”

⁹⁶ Riccardo Tarli, Operationsgebiet Schweiz: Die dunklen Geschäfte der Stasi (Zürich: Orell Füssli Verlag, 2015); Andreas Förster, Eidgenossen contra Genossen: Wie der Schweizer Nachrichtendienst DDR-Händler und Stasi-Agenten überwachte (Berlin: C.H. Links Verlag, 2016).

⁹⁷ “Abhörungsprotokoll,” 21 June 1961, E4320C#1994/78#677*, SFA.

⁹⁸ Wettering, “Counterintelligence,” 275.

⁹⁹ Mattis, “Chinese Intelligence,” 682.

¹⁰⁰ Eftimiades, Chinese Intelligence Operations, 51–2.

¹⁰¹ Eftimiades, Chinese Intelligence Operations, 46–51.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung [159685];

Notes on contributors

Ariane Knüsel

Ariane Knüsel is Senior Researcher at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland, working on a book project on Sino-Swiss relations in the Cold War. She has been Swiss Scholar at the Wilson Center, and Visiting Scholar at the University of California, Berkeley. Her publications deal with Western relations with China in the twentieth century, Western media portrayals of modern China, and Chinese intelligence in the Cold War.