Threatened by peace: the PRC’s peacefulness rhetoric and the ‘China’ representation question in the United Nations (1949–71)

ABSTRACT

In the 1950s and 1960s, the Republic of China on Taiwan (ROC) not only distrusted, but also feared, the People’s Republic of China (PRC)’s assertion to be peace-loving. The reason was that the PRC used its peacefulness claim to negotiate whether the ROC or the PRC should represent ‘China’ in the United Nations, based on a specific definition of ‘peacefulness’ and on the socialist World Peace Movement as a platform of public diplomacy and international networking. This explains a function of the PRC’s peacefulness claim in the Cold War and rewrites the chronology of the PRC’s gradual United Nations entry.

KEYWORDS:

• China
• Taiwan
• United Nations
• China representation question
• peace
• World Peace Movement
• World Peace Council

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my colleagues Puck Engman, Elisabeth Schleep, and Daniel Leese for their invaluable feedback. I am also indebted to my colleagues and students who discussed this paper in the Q&A session of a lecture in Hamburg in April 2018, as well as to my colleagues at the University of Southampton for their incredibly helpful input during the workshop ‘Conversations on Research’ in 2019. My thanks also go to my students in Hamburg and Freiburg for their inspiring discussions during our seminars on China in the Cold War during the academic year 2017/18.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

¹ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry (2),” 7 March 1961, 1, 020-063201-0029, Guoshiguan.

² ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry (2),” 4 March 1961, 2, 020-063201-0029, Guoshiguan.

³ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry,” 14 December 1960, 2, 020-063201-0029, Guoshiguan; and ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry (2),” 4 March 1961, 3.

⁴ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry,” 14 December 1960, 2.

⁵ UN, “Charter of the United Nations,” 26 June 1945, II.4.1, https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/ctc/uncharter.pdf accessed 27 March 2017.

⁶ 'Communist “front” organisations': “Commons Sitting,” 20th Century House of Commons Hansard Sessional Papers (Hansard) 5, no. 639 (3 May 1961): 1563; and CIA, “The World Peace Movement,” 1 October 1956, 5, CIA-RDP78-00915R000300040002-2, CIA Historical Collections, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/historical-collections accessed 1 January 2019; 'Tarnorganisationen': BND, “Neue Richtlinien …,” April 1959, 2, B 206/3237, Bundesarchiv Berlin-Lichterfelde (BArch); 'täckorganisationer': Justitiedepartementet, “Den farliga fredsrörelsen: Säkerhetstjänsternas övervakning av fredsorganisationer, värnpliktsvägrare och FNL-grupper 1945–1990,” 2 January 2002, 25, https://www.regeringen.se/rattsliga-dokument/statens-offentliga-utredningar/2002/01/sou-200290/ accessed 6 August 2018.

⁷ BND, “Internationaler Studentenbund,” May 1959, 1, B 206/3237, BArch.

⁸ CIA, “The World Peace Council,” 1954, 3, CIA-RDP78-00915R000300040001-3, CIA Historical Collections, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/historical-collections accessed 1 January 2019; Justitiedepartementet, “Den farliga fredsrörelsen,” 26; “British Guiana,” 20th Century House of Commons Sessional Papers 23 (October 1953): 11, https://parlipapers.proquest.com/parlipapers/docview/t70.d75.1952-043684?accountid=13963 accessed 1 January 2019; and “Lords Sitting,” Hansard 5, no. 179 (25 November 1952): 563.

⁹ ‘World-communist net’: BND, “Internationaler Studentenbund,” 1; ‘Propaganda’: Nils Silfverskiöld, “Pressgrannar,” Dagens Nyheter, 2 October 1949; and BND, “Erhöhte Aktivität des Weltfriedensrates im chinesischen Raum,” 23 September 1959, 1, B 206/3237, BArch.

¹⁰ Nicholas John Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945–1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 260.

¹¹ Nancy Snow, “Rethinking Public Diplomacy,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, ed. Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York: Routledge, 2009), 6; Evan H. Potter, Branding Canada: Projecting Canada’s Soft Power through Public Diplomacy (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2009), 32; and Ingrid d’Hooghe, China’s Public Diplomacy (Leiden: Brill Nijhoff, 2015), 18.

¹² Hooghe, China’s Public Diplomacy, 28. See also Potter, Branding Canada, 36. For a criticism, see Eytan Gilboa, “Searching for a Theory of Public Diplomacy,” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616, no. 1 (March 2008): 55–77.

¹³ Literally ‘seductive’, “Lords Sitting,” Hansard 5, no. 190 (8 December 1954): 319.

¹⁴ Sofia Graziani, “The Case of Youth Exchanges and Interactions Between the PRC and Italy in the 1950s,” Modern Asian Studies 51, no. 1 (January 2017): 194–226; Jian Chen, Mao’s China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 257–62; Nicolai Volland, “Inventing a Proletarian Fiction for China: The Stalin Prize, Cultural Diplomacy, and the Creation of a Pan-Socialist Identity,” in Dynamics of the Cold War in Asia: Ideology, Identity, and Culture, ed. Tuong Vu and Wasana Wongsurawat (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 93–111; Matthew D. Johnson, “New China’s Wartime Cosmopolitanism: Media Industries, Cinematic Exchange, and Grassroots International Culture, 1949–1953” (2016); Jiang Huajie, “Gonggong waijiao de yishi xingtaihua: lengzhan shiqi Zhongguo peixun A’erbaniya shixisheng jihua jiedu,” Waijiao pinglun no. 4 (2012): 129–43.

¹⁵ Jian Chen, “China and the Bandung Conference: Changing Perceptions and Representations,” in Bandung Revisited: The Legacy of the 1955 Asian-African Conference for International Order, ed. See Seng Tan and Amitav Acharya (Singapore: NUS Press, 2008), 134; Shu Guang Zhang, “Constructing ‘Peaceful Coexistence’: China’s Diplomacy toward the Geneva and Bandung Conferences, 1954–55,” Cold War History 7, no. 4 (November 2007): 518.

¹⁶ The ROC on Geneva: “Gongchan jituan wei peihe Rineiwa huiyi suo cai ge xiang xingdong zhi yanjiu,” 1954, 1, 008-010602-00007-001, Guoshiguan. Bandung: “Dui Zhu Mao feigang liyong Ya-Fei huiyi jinxing waijiao hodong de celüe yinmou zhi fenxi,” 16 April 1955, 20, 008-010602-00010-002, Guoshiguan.

¹⁷ Hooghe, China’s Public Diplomacy, 21.

¹⁸ PRC-US meetings: James Fetzer, “Clinging to Containment: China Policy,” in Kennedy’s Quest for Victory: American Foreign Policy, 1961–1963, ed. Thomas G. Paterson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 178–97; Zhang Xiujuan, “Zhou Enlai yu Zhongguo huifu zai Lianheguo hefa xiwei de douzheng lishi,” Dang de wenxian no. 1 (1997): 33–5; Noam Kochavi, A Conflict Perpetuated: China Policy during the Kennedy Years (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2002); Liu Zikui, “Meiguo yu 1966 nian Lianheguo Zhongguo daibiaoquan wenti,” Dangdai Zhongguoshi yanjiu 14, no. 6 (November 2007): 55–61; Zhang Yijun, “Cong Zhongguo zai Lianheguo daibiaoquan wenti kan Zhong-Mei zhi jian de zhanlüe bo’yi,” Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (zhexue shehui kexueban) no. 1 (2015): 164–70. ROC-US diplomacy: Wang Zhenghua, “Jiang Jieshi yu 1961 Lianheguo Zhongguo daibiaoquan wenti,” Guoshiguan guankan 21 (September 2009): 95–150; and Wang Zhenghua, “Jiang Jieshi yu 1971 Lianheguo Zhongguo daibiaoquan wenti,” Guoshiguan guankan 26 (December 2010): 131–76. Economic policies: Shuguang Zhang, Beijing’s Economic Statecraft during the Cold War, 1949–1991 (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2014).

¹⁹ Chen, Mao’s China and the Cold War, 238–76; Jeremy Scott Friedman, Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 197; and Zhang Xiujuan, “Nikesong zhengfu yu Lianheguo Zhongguo daibiaoquan wenti (1969–1971),” Lishi jiaoxue no. 8 (2008): 39–44.

²⁰ Luo Ronghai, “Xuexi Xi Jinping jianghua: heping shi Zhonghua minzu sui shenceng de wenhua jiyin,” Renminwang, 30 September 2014, http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2014/0930/c1001-25766367.html accessed 9 April 2018.

²¹ Confucianism as a pacifist source: John King Fairbank, “Introduction: Varieties of the Chinese Military Experience,” in Chinese Ways in Warfare, ed. Frank Algerton Kierman and John King Fairbank (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 7; Confucianism as a source for pacifist rhetoric: Morton H. Fried, “Military Status in Chinese Society,” American Journal of Sociology 57, no. 4 (1952): 347–57; Hans J. van de Ven, “War in the Making of Modern China,” Modern Asian Studies 30, no. 4 (1996): 737; Nicola Di Cosmo, “Introduction,” in Military Culture in Imperial China, ed. Nicola Di Cosmo (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 2. Slogans like ‘peaceful rise’ and ‘peaceful coexistence’ as indicators for China’s disinclination to war Chen Yue, ““Zhongguo weixie lun” yu Zhongguo heping jueqi: yi zhong “cengci fenxi” fa de jiedu,” Waijiao pinglun no. 82 (March 2005): 93–9; Biwu Zhang, “Chinese Perceptions of US Return to Southeast Asia and the Prospect of China’s Peaceful Rise,” Journal of Contemporary China 24, no. 91 (2 January 2015): 176–95; Honghua Men, “China’s Position in the World and the Orientation of Its Grand Strategy,” Modern China Studies 24, no. 1 (2017): 42. These slogans as empty propaganda: Ralph D. Sawyer, “Chinese Strategic Power: Myths, Intent, and Projections,” Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 9, no. 2 (2006–2007): 57–62; June Teufel Dreyer, “US-China Relations: Engagement or Talking Past Each Other,” Journal of Contemporary China 17, no. 57 (2008): 591–609. Alternative viewpoints: Liselotte Odgaard, China and Coexistence: Beijing’s National Security Strategy for the Twenty-First Century (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2012), 162; and Wang Yiwei, “Chaoyue heping jueqi: Zhongguo shishi baorongxing jueqi zhanlüe de biyaoxing he kenengxing,” Shijie jingji yu zhengzhi no. 8 (2011): 140–60.

²² ‘[s]eductive’, “Lords Sitting,” 8 December 1954, 319.

²³ I could not obtain the written permission by the current president of the WPC, which is required for access to the Archives départementales de la Seine-Saint-Denis.

²⁴ Zhong-Gong Zhongyang waijiaozu, Guanyu Zhongguo chuxi Lian-Da wenti, 1949, 2, 113-00001-02, Waijiaobu dangan’guan (WJBDAG).

²⁵ Zhang, “Zhou Enlai yu Zhongguo huifu zai Lianheguo hefa xiwei de douzheng lishi,” 62.

²⁶ UN, “Charter,” II.4.2.

²⁷ Mao coined the term ‘Intermediate Zone’ in 1946, but it only gained traction in the second half of the 1950s. In the 1960s, Mao distinguished between two Intermediate Zones: Asia, Africa, and Latin America on the one hand, and the Western non-superpowers (including Japan) on the other. In the 1970s, the Intermediate Zone was replaced by the Three Worlds theory. Luo Shiping, “Mao Zedong ‘zhongjian didai’ lilun de tichu yu fazhan,” Dangshi yanjiu yu jiaoxue no. 2 (2000): 33–5.

²⁸ J.D. Armstrong, Revolutionary Diplomacy: Chinese Foreign Policy and the United Front Doctrine (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977); Zhang, “Constructing ‘Peaceful Coexistence’”; Julia C. Strauss, “The Past in the Present: Historical and Rhetorical Lineages in China’s Relations with Africa,” China Quarterly 199 (2009): 777–95; Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); and Friedman, Shadow Cold War.

²⁹ UNGA, “Question of the Representation of China,” 18 October 1951, A/1923, United Nations Archives, Official Document System (UNODS), https://documents.un.org/ accessed 22 February 2018. Example for a message: UNGA, “Economic and Social Council Official Records,” 1 August 1950, 2 (Agenda item 32), E/11TH SESS. (RESUMED)/ANNEXES, UNODS, https://documents.un.org/ (accessed 13 March 2018).

³⁰ Vaughan Lowe et al., eds., The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), vi.

³¹ Wang, “Jiang Jieshi yu 1961 Lianheguo Zhongguo daibiaoquan wenti,” 99.

³² Zhang, “Zhou Enlai yu Zhongguo huifu zai Lianheguo hefa xiwei de douzheng lishi,” 64; and Wang, “Jiang Jieshi yu 1961 Lianheguo Zhongguo daibiaoquan wenti,” 99.

³³ ‘An important question’: UNGA, “Representation of China in the United Nations,” 15 December 1961, A/RES/1668(XVI), General Assembly Resolutions, http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/16 accessed 13 March 2018'; ‘Australia, Colombia, Italy, Japan, and the United States’: United Nations, Yearbook of the United Nations 1961 (New York: Office of Public Information, United Nations, 1963), 125.

³⁴ UN, “Charter,” IV.18.2.

³⁵ Earlier years: Zhong-Gong Zhongyang waijiaozu, Guanyu Zhongguo chuxi Lian-Da wenti, 2; 1960s: “Indu’nixiya tuichu Lianheguo shi Zhengyi de zhengque de geming xingdong,” RMRB, 10 January 1965, Beijing; “Shou diguozhuyi kongzhi de Lianheguo bi jiang kuatai,” RMRB, 9 February 1965, Beijing.

³⁶ Winsberg Chai, “China and the United Nations: Problems of Representation and Alternatives,” Asian Survey 10, no. 5 (May 1970): 407.

³⁷ Wang, “Jiang Jieshi yu 1971 Lianheguo Zhongguo daibiaoquan wenti,” 138.

³⁸ Ibid., 144.

³⁹ Ibid., 153.

⁴⁰ USA, “Letter to the Secretary-General,” 17 August 1971, 2, A/8442, UNODS, https://documents.un.org/ accessed 21 February 2018.

⁴¹ On the result of the vote by country, see UN, Yearbook of the United Nations 1971 (New York: Office of Public Information, United Nations, 1974), 131.

⁴² Wang, “Jiang Jieshi yu 1971 Lianheguo Zhongguo daibiaoquan wenti,” 137.

⁴³ For a complete list, see UN, Yearbook 1971, 136.

⁴⁴ For a full account of the General Assembly vote, see ibid., 126–32.

⁴⁵ “Lords Sitting,” 8 December 1954, 319.

⁴⁶ Vladimir Bukovsky, “The Peace Movement and the Soviet Union,” 1 May 1982, 3, CIA-RDP85T00153R000300020014-2, CIA Historical Collections, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/historical-collections accessed 1 January 2019.

⁴⁷ BND, “Tagung des Weltfriedensrates in Stockholm,“ 23 May 1959, B 206/3237, BArch.

⁴⁸ Justitiedepartementet, ”Den farliga fredsrörelsen,” 29.

⁴⁹ “Lords Sitting,” 25 November 1952, 563; and “Commons Sitting,” Hansard 5, no. 660 (24 May 1962): 777.

⁵⁰ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry,” 14 December 1960, 2.

⁵¹ UN, “Charter,” II.4.1.

⁵² Zhong-Gong Zhongyang waijiaozu, Guanyu Zhongguo chuxi Lian-Da wenti, 2.

⁵³ Albania et al., “Letter to the Secretary-General,” 2 September 1970, 3, A/8043/ADD.2, UNODS, https://documents.un.org/ accessed 2 February 2018.

⁵⁴ UN, Yearbook 1961, 126.

⁵⁵ Justitiedepartementet, “Den farliga fredsrörelsen,” 26; “Lords Sitting,” 8 December 1954, 319; “Commons Sitting,” 3 May 1961, 1563; “Commons Sitting,” 24 May 1962, 777; and BND, “Neue Richtlinien …,” 2 ‘seductive’: “Lords Sitting,” 8 December 1954, 319.

⁵⁶ Rüdiger Schlaga, Die Kommunisten in der Friedensbewegung – erfolglos? Die Politik des Weltfriedensrates im Verhältnis zur Aussenpolitik der Sowjetunion und zu unabhängigen Friedensbewegungen im Westen (1950–1979) (Münster: Lit, 1991), 52.

⁵⁷ On the appeal against the A-bomb, see Henrietta Harrison, “Popular Responses to the Atomic Bomb in China 1945–1955,” Past & Present 218, no. suppl. 8 (2013): 98–116; and Elisabeth Forster, “Bellicose Peace: China’s Peace Signature Campaign and Discourses about ‘Peace’ in the Early 1950s,” Modern China (June 2019).

⁵⁸ For examples of politicians, see Justitiedepartementet, “Den farliga fredsrörelsen,” 53.

⁵⁹ Ibid., 25; Lawrence S. Wittner, One World or None: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement through 1953 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), 301; Justitiedepartementet, “Den farliga fredsrörelsen”; BND, “Ergebnis des WFR-Kongresses in Stockholm,” 25 July 1958, B 206/3237, BArch; and CIA, ‘The World Peace Movement.”

⁶⁰ Yang Lijun, “‘Baowei shijie heping yundong’: Dongfang zhenying yingdui Xifang lengzhan de yishi xingtai xingwei,” Heilongjiang shehui kexue no. 1 (2013): 135.

⁶¹ Schlaga, Die Kommunisten in der Friedensbewegung – erfolglos?, 206.

⁶² ‘Lutte pour la paix’: R. De Grada and J. Lafitte, “Letter from the World Peace Council,” 6 October 1950, 1, DZ 9/1707, BArch; zhengqu heping: Literally, ‘fighting for peace’, “Yi jiji xingdong zhengqu heping!,” RMRB, 27 December 1950, Beijing.

⁶³ Christi Scott Bartman, “Lawfare: Use of the Definition of Aggressive War by the Soviet and Russian Governments” (PhD, Bowling Green State University, 2009), 30.

⁶⁴ UN, “Charter,” VII.39, VII.41.

⁶⁵ Jocelyn Getgen Kestenbaum, “Closing Impunity Gaps for the Crime of Aggression,” Chicago Journal of International Law 17, no. 1 (2016): 57–60; Richard K. Betts, “Systems for Peace or Causes of War? Collective Security, Arms Control, and the New Europe,” International Security 17, no. 1 (1992): 17; and Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations (London: Allen Lane, 1978), 53–8.

⁶⁶ On the legal challenges: Judith N. Shklar, Legalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964), 180.

⁶⁷ UNSC, “Resolution Concerning the Complaint of Aggression upon the Republic of Korea,” June 27, 1950, 1, S/1511, UNODS, http://undocs.org/S/1511 accessed 28 March 2017; and Forster, “Bellicose Peace,” 10–13.

⁶⁸ Appeasement: Holger Nehring, “Peace Movements and Internationalism,” Moving the Social 55 (2016): 104; Communism: Robbie Lieberman, The Strangest Dream: Communism, Anticommunism and the U.S. Peace Movement 1945–1963, 1st ed. (New York: Syracuse University Press, 2000), 92; WWII: Lieberman, The Strangest Dream, 4; and Harrison, “Popular Responses to the Atomic Bomb in China 1945–1955,” 101.

⁶⁹ Jiang Lingjia, Shijie heping yundong, 2nd ed. (Renren chubanshe, 1950), 18–19. See also Forster, “Bellicose Peace”. That peace rhetoric was strongest just before the Korean War is suggested by a search for ‘heping’ (peace) in the database Renmin ribao: dianzi ban, rmrb.egreenapple.com (accessed 5 September 2016).

⁷⁰ “Commons Sitting,” Hansard 5, no. 505 (23 October 1952): 1433; Xiao San, “Zai shijie yonghu heping dahui changshe weiyuanhui Sige’ermo huiyi shang de fayan,” RMRB, 11 May 1950, Beijing.

⁷¹ “Shijie heping lishihui zhuxi Jueli’ao Juli …,” RMRB, 2 August 1953, Beijing; “Wei jinyibu zhengqu guoji jushi de huanhe er nuli,” RMRB, 27 November 1953, Beijing; and Mao Dun, “Wei jinyibu zhengqu guoji jushi de huanhe er nuli,” Baowei heping no. 32 (February 1954): 20–4.

⁷² Without mentioning China, but only the importance of ‘negotiations’: Frédéric Joliot-Curie, “Rede,” 1953, 5, DZ 9/686, BArch; Ilja Ehrenburg, “Rede (SU),” 1953, DZ 9/686, BArch; and H.M.-SER-J., “Rede (Korea),” 1953, 4–5, DZ 9/686, BArch.

⁷³ Chinesische Delegation, “Redenentwurf,” 2 December 1964, DZ 9/498, BArch; and “Heping gongchu de xin bangyang,” RMRB, 30 April 1960, Beijing.

⁷⁴ Forster, “Bellicose Peace.”

⁷⁵ “Xiuzhengzhuyi zhe de zhanzheng yu heping lilun he lishi dui ta de shenpan,” RMRB, 30 August 1965, Beijing. See also Friedman, Shadow Cold War, 89.

⁷⁶ Chinesische Delegation, “Redenentwurf,” 1. On China’s attitude on disarmament, see also Nicola Horsburgh, China and Global Nuclear Order: From Estrangement to Active Engagement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 58–76.

⁷⁷ BND, “Präsidiumstagung des WFR in Wien,” April 1962, B 206/3239, BArch.

⁷⁸ Chinesische Delegation, “Erklärung,” 2 December 1963, DZ 9/498, BArch; and Arjun Arora, “Speech (India),” 1963, 5, DZ 9/695, BArch.

⁷⁹ Nationale Front der DDR Bezirksausschuß Karl-Marx-Stadt, “Informationsbericht,” January 3, 1979, DY 6/1972, BArch. The Sino-Soviet border conflict of 1969 was not criticised.

⁸⁰ BND, “Ergebnis des WFR-Kongresses in Stockholm,” 2; BND, “Präsidiumstagung des WFR in Wien”; and Bukovsky, “The Peace Movement and the Soviet Union.”

⁸¹ “Unfrieden auf dem Friedenskongreß: Sowjets verlassen in Helsinki während der Rede eines Albaners die Sitzung,” Süddeutsche Zeitung, 14 July 1965, DZ 9/397, BArch, Munich.

⁸² Assemblee des Weltfriedensrates, “Appell,” 1971, DZ 9/51, BArch.

⁸³ For instance Frédéric Joliot-Curie, “Der Weg zum Frieden und zur nationalen Unabhängigkeit …,” 1971, 58, DZ 9/51, BArch.

⁸⁴ Moruo Guo, “Rede (China),” 1951, 7, DZ 9/153, BArch.

⁸⁵ Saranankara, “Speech,” 1955, 3, DZ 9/407, BArch.

⁸⁶ Deutsches Friedenskomitee, ed., “Vernunft und Herz der Menschheit,” 1952, 15, DZ 9/153, BArch.

⁸⁷ Heda, “Letter to Zheng Senyu,” 18 September 1954, 1, 113-00222-03, WJBDAG.

⁸⁸ Zheng Senyu, “Letter to the Chinese Council for the Protection of World Peace,” 20 September 1954, 1, 113-00222-03, WJBDAG.

⁸⁹ Heda, “Letter to Zheng Senyu,” 18 September 1954, 1.

⁹⁰ Heda, “Letter to Zheng Senyu,” 30 September 1954, 1, 113-00222-03, WJBDAG.

⁹¹ In the original: “Das Weltkommunistische Netz,” BND, “Internationaler Studentenbund,” 1.

⁹² Zhong-Gong Zhongyang waijiaozu, Guanyu Zhongguo chuxi Lian-Da wenti, 4.

⁹³ BND, “Internationaler Studentenbund,” 1.

⁹⁴ Waijiaobu, “Letter to the Embassy of the PRC in India,” 17 November 1955, 3, 113-00225-01, WJBDAG.

⁹⁵ D.M. Prasad, “Ceylon’s Foreign Policy under the Bandaranaikes 1956–65: A Study in the Emergence and Role of Non-Alignment,” Indian Journal of Political Science 33, no. 3 (1972): 271–8.

⁹⁶ Waijiaobu, “Letter to the Foreign Ministry of the PRC,” 22 June 1955, 113-00225-01, WJBDAG.

⁹⁷ The discussion: Embassy of the PRC in Guangdong, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry of the PRC,” 19 November 1964, 1, 113-00391-04, WJBDAG; Memorandum: Waijiaobu, “Memorandum du Cambodge,” November 1964, 113-00391-03, WJBDAG; Mobilisation of support: PRC embassy in Cambodia, ‘Telegram to the Foreign Ministry of the PRC (3),” 20 November 1964, 1–2, 113-00391-04, WJBDAG.

⁹⁸ Waijiaobu, “Memorandum du Cambodge,” 2–3.

⁹⁹ BND, “Internationaler Studentenbund,” 1.

¹⁰⁰ Embassy of the PRC in Hungary, Yi jiu wu er nian guoji heping youhao huodong zongjie baogao, 1952, 4, 113-00181-01, WJBDAG.

¹⁰¹ Moruo Guo et al., Guojixing jihui kaihui qingkuang, 21 June 1954, 4, 113-00217-03, WJBDAG.

¹⁰² Huang Jinqi, Ying-Han duizhao waijiao shuwen jiaocheng (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1985), 644.

¹⁰³ Gene D. Overstreet and Marshall Windmiller, Communism in India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 412–26.

¹⁰⁴ Dietmar Rothermund, “The Era of Non-Alignment,” in The Non-Aligned Movement and the Cold War: Delhi, Bandung, Belgrade, ed. Nataša Mišković, Harald Fischer-Tiné, and Nada Boškovska Leimgruber (London: Routledge, 2014), 21.

¹⁰⁵ M. Chandra, “Durch asiatische Solidarität zum Weltfrieden,” 1954, 1–6, 11, 13, DZ 9/1915, BArch.

¹⁰⁶ BND, “Internationaler Studentenbund,” 1.

¹⁰⁷ Chengzhi Liao et al., Guanyu huanhe jushi guoji huiyi gaikuang jianbao, 25 June 1954, 9, 113-00217-03, WJBDAG.

¹⁰⁸ BND, “Ergebnis des WFR-Kongresses in Stockholm”; and CIA, “The World Peace Movement.”

¹⁰⁹ Justitiedepartementet, ”Den farliga fredsrörelsen,” 35, 45.

¹¹⁰ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry,” 14 December 1960, 2; ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry (2),” 4 March 1961, 2.

¹¹¹ ‘Listening in’: ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry,” 11 March 1961, 1, 020-063201-0029, Guoshiguan; Report on speeches: ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry (1),” 7 March 1961, 1, 020-063201-0029, Guoshiguan; and Collecting propaganda material: ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry,” 11 March 1961, 1–2.

¹¹² Patrick Iber, Neither Peace nor Freedom: The Cultural Cold War in Latin America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015), 146.

¹¹³ Ibid., 156.

¹¹⁴ Ibid., 149.

¹¹⁵ Guo et al., Guojixing jihui kaihui qingkuang, 1.

¹¹⁶ ‘Guanyu jiedai Riben Hengbin shi daibiaotuan lai Hua (cao’an)’, 1956, 10, 127-001-00240, Beijing Municipal Archives.

¹¹⁷ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry (2),” 4 March 1961, 3.

¹¹⁸ Lit. ‘anti-anti-Communists’, Iber, Neither Peace nor Freedom, 153.

¹¹⁹ Ibid., 154.

¹²⁰ Ibid., 162.

¹²¹ Publications: For example, the Daily Worker in Britain (“Commons Sitting,” 23 October 1952, 1433) or Live in Peace (Leva i Fred) in Sweden (Justitiedepartementet, “Den farliga fredsrörelsen,” 22). Leaflets: BND, “Konferenz zur Koordinierung des “Kampfes für den Frieden in Mitteleuropa” in Plauen,” February 1961, B 206/3239, BArch. Making contact with trade unions: Justitiedepartementet, “Den farliga fredsrörelsen,” 35. Contacting scientists: Ibid., 47. Contacting artists: BND, “Versuche zur Einschaltung …,” 30 January 1961, B 206/3239, BArch. Contacting intellectuals: BND, “Weltfriedensrat,” December 1958, 4, B 206/3237, BArch. Contacting non-socialist pro-peace groups: Justitiedepartementet, “Den farliga fredsrörelsen,” 47; and BND, “Kontaktaufnahme des WFR mit Friedensorganisationen,” 3 January 1961, 3, B 206/3239, BArch. ‘[W]orld-communist net’: BND, “Internationaler Studentenbund,” 1. For relevant discussions, see “Lords Sitting,” 25 November 1952, 563; “British Guiana,” 11; Justitiedepartementet, “Den farliga fredsrörelsen,” 26–7; BND, “Weltfriedensrat,” 1; and CIA, “The World Peace Council,” 3.

¹²² “British Guiana,” 15.

¹²³ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry,” 13 March 1961, 1, 020-063201-0029, Guoshiguan.

¹²⁴ Steven Phillips, “National Legitimacy and Overseas Chinese Mobilization,” Journal of Modern Chinese History 7, no. 1 (2013): 64, 75.

¹²⁵ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry,” 8 March 1961, 1, 020-063201-0029, Guoshiguan.

¹²⁶ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry,” 7 April 1961, 2, 020-063201-0029, Guoshiguan.

¹²⁷ That the movement was negligible: Bukovsky, “The Peace Movement and the Soviet Union,” 3.

¹²⁸ PRC embassy in Sweden, “Letter to the Foreign Ministry,” April 1953, 1, 113-00165-02, WJBDAG; Embassy of the PRC in Burma, “Letter to the Foreign Ministry,” 5 May 1953, 1, 113-00165-02, WJBDAG; and Embassy of the PRC in Switzerland, “Letter to the Foreign Ministry,” 5 May 1953, 1–3, 113-00165-02, WJBDAG.

¹²⁹ “Peace Congress in Mexico,” China Post, 12 March 1961, 1, 020-063201-0029, Guoshiguan.

¹³⁰ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry (1),” 4 March 1961, 1, 020-063201-0029, Guoshiguan.

¹³¹ Anders Örne, “Hur är det möjligt?” Dagens Nyheter, 19 February 1950.

¹³² Nils Silfverskiöld, “Kring Världsfredskommittén,” Dagens Nyheter, 5 March 1950.

¹³³ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry,” 8 March 1961, 1. On the division of the huaqiao: and Joan S.H. Wang, “In the Name of Legitimacy: Taiwan and Overseas Chinese during the Cold War Era,” China Review 11, no. 2 (2011): 73.

¹³⁴ ROC embassy in Mexico, “Telegram to the Foreign Ministry (1),” 7 March 1961, 1.

¹³⁵ UN, “Charter,” II.4.1.

¹³⁶ For this dating of the rapprochement, see Chen, Mao’s China and the Cold War, 238–76.

¹³⁷ Tony Smith, “New Bottles for New Wine: A Pericentric Framework for the Study of the Cold War,” Diplomatic History 24, no. 4 (2000): 567–91.

¹³⁸ On the GMD’s vision for an alternative post-Second World War international order: Rana Mitter, “Imperialism, Transnationalism, and the Reconstruction of Post-War China: UNRRA in China, 1944–7,” Past & Present 218, no. suppl. 8 (2013): 69. On proposing alternative international orders throughout the twentieth century: Marc Andre Matten, Imagining a Postnational World: Hegemony and Space in Modern China (Leiden: Brill, 2016). Scholars ascribing to the PRC a vision for an alternative order: Zhao Tingyang, Tianxia tixi: shijie zhidu zhexue daolun (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin daxue chubanshe, 2011); and David C. Kang, China Rising: Peace, Power, and Order in East Asia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007). Similar views in in PRC politics: Luo, “Xuexi Xi Jinping jianghua.”

¹³⁹ Peter Burke, “Performing History: The Importance of Occasions,” Rethinking History 9, no. 1 (2005): 44.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft Freiburg im Breisgau and by the Max Weber Stiftung, Germany.

Notes on contributors

Elisabeth Forster

Elisabeth Forster After having taught at the Universities of Oxford, Freiburg, and Hamburg, Forster is now a lecturer in modern Chinese history at the University of Southampton. She has recently published in the Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, Modern Asian Studies, and Modern China (June 2019). Her monograph, 1919 – The Year That Changed China, was published in 2018 with De Gruyter.