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ABSTRACT
Congressman Charles J. Kersten (R-WI) authored the Kersten Amendment to the Mutual Security Act of 1951, allocating $100 million annually to train refugees from Eastern European countries in national military units in support of NATO or for “some other purpose.” He advocated “positive” policies to promote liberation of captive Eastern European peoples, including waging an all-out psychological war and training the exiles; Kersten funds supported ongoing covert plans by the CIA and State Department. His career reveals the influence of religious faith on foreign relations and both cooperation and tensions between Congress and the Administration in the early Cold War.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge the support of the Truman Presidential Library and Museum and the Providence College School of Arts and Sciences. Thanks to William Fliss, Archivist, John P. Raynor, S.J. Library for his invaluable assistance. Thanks also to the anonymous reviewers and to Rev. William D. Miscamble, CSC, for their very constructive and helpful comments.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Correction Statement
This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.
Notes
1 President Truman signed Public Law 165 on 10 October 1951; it appropriated US$7.5 billion for foreign military, economic, and technical assistance to American allies. Congressional Record, 82nd Congress, 1st Session, 1951, 97, pt. 16: 10226–63, A5214–16, Statutes at Large, vol. 53, 373–4.
2 9 March 1948, Letter Morton R. Hunger to Charles J. Kersten, CJK, Series 1, Box 1, File 1, Special Collections and University Archives, Raynor Memorial Library, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI (hereafter cited as MU).
3 On the ITT/Vogeler case, see László Borhi, Hungary in the Cold War 1945–1956: Between the US and the Soviet Union (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2004); Margaret M. Manchester, ‘‘It Might be a Losing Game … but There was Still a Chance that We Could Win’: The Corporate Cold War in Hungary: ITT and the Vogeler/Sanders Case Reconsidered,’ Journal of Cold War Studies (Forthcoming); Martin Mevius, ‘A Crown for Rákosi: The Vogeler Case, the Holy Crown of St Stephen, and the (Inter)national Legitimacy of the Hungarian Communist Regime, 1945–1978,’ The Slavonic and East European Review 89, no. 1 (2011): 76–107; Véra Pécsi, ‘The Standard Electric Trial,’’ The Hungarian Quarterly 162 (2001): 85–98; and Tibor Glant, ‘American-Hungarian Relations and the Return of the Holy Crown,’ in Hungary’s Historical Legacies: Studies in Honour of Béla Várdy, ed. R. William Hupchik (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001).
4 Memorandum of Conversation, Robert M. McKisson, DOS, Office of Eastern European Affairs with Congressman Jacob R. Javits re Vogeler Case, 24 January 1951. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, Vol. IV, Europe: Political and Economic Developments (Part 2), (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1985) (hereafter cited as FRUS with appropriate year and volume number), 1439–41. Susan Lisa Carruthers, Cold War Captives: Imprisonment, Escape, and Brainwashing (Oakland: University of California Press, 2009), argues: ‘The most common framing of Vogeler’s predicament was as the main emblem of America’s post-war enfeeblement, a demonstration that the United States could no longer hope to protect its citizens,’ 172.
5 Letter Mrs. Howard M. Hartshorne, New Canaan, CT to Sen. William Benton, 6 March 1951, RG 59, General Records of State Department, Records re Claims with Hungary, 1956–68, Vogeler Case, Box 5, (Vogeler Case 1 of 2), National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD (hereafter cited as NARA).
6 May 1951, ‘Monthly Survey of American Opinion on International Affairs,’ Survey#131, prepared by the Office of Public Studies, Office of Public Affairs, Department of State, Developments of May 1951 (Restricted), RG59, Records Relating to Hungarian Affairs, 1949–1963, Hungary, USAF plan incident to Vogeler Case, #1, Box 3, (Vogeler Case #10 [2 of 2]), NARA.
7 Charles Gurtzner, ‘Vogeler Back, Bids US stay Prepared: Robert Vogeler and his Family,’ New York Times, 2 May 1951; and ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times, 1.
8 Robert A. Vogeler, Speech at National Press Club, 8 June 1951, Paramount Newsreel (video), 200 PN-10-85, NARA.
9 Speech by Hon. Allan Oakley Hunter in House of Representatives, 20 October 1951, Appendix of Congressional Record, 31 October 1951, Vol. 97, No. 199, p. A7078. RG 59, Records relating to Hungarian Affairs, 1949–1963, Hungary, USAF plane incident to Vogeler Case #1, Box 3, NARA.
10 ‘Republican Policy of Liberation OR Democrat Policy of Containment,’ Republican National Committee, Washington, DC, 1952, CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
11 Untitled, 22 May 1951. According to the log, the Legislative Counsel instructed General Reber of the Department of the Army to follow up with the Congressman and Mrs Vogeler to discuss problems relating to Counterintelligence Corps (CIC). CIA-RDP91-00682R000200040062-1, CIA General Records, CIA-FOIA Electronic Reading Room, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/home (hereafter cited as CIA-FOIA), accessed 12 June 2018.
12 Robert A. Vogeler, ‘Liberation: Key to Survival,’ 14 April 1954, Speech inserted by Charles J. Kersten into the Congressional Record, 83rd Congress, 2nd Session. CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 16, MU.
13 ‘US Foreign Policy Toward the USSR,’ CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13: Kersten Amendment to the MSA, 1951–1954, MU.
14 See David M. Barrett, The CIA and Congress: The Untold Story from Truman to Kennedy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005). See also Peter Grose, Operation Rollback: America’s Secret War behind the Iron Curtain (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000); and Jonathan H. L’Hommedieu, ‘Baltic Exiles and the US. Congress: Investigations and Legacies of the House Select Committee, 1953–1955,’ Journal of American Ethnic History 31, no. 2 (2012): 41–67.
15 Secret memo prepared by the Chief of Planning and Program Coordination re CIA Position Paper on NSC 143, CIA-RDP83-00036R000700070045-8,CIA-FOIA, accessed 1 June 2018.
16 ‘Biemiller and Kersten Argue in a Debate,’ 13 October 1951. Democrat Andrew Biemiller called Kersten ‘McCarthy’s Shadow,’ while Kersten labelled Biemiller a ‘Cartoon Copy of Dean Acheson.’ CJK, Series 10, Box 1, Folder 1, MU.
17 See for example, Dianne Kirby, Religion and the Cold War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945–1960: The Soul of Containment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Janicke Stramer, US Foreign Policy and Religion During the Cold War and the War on Terror (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2012); and Philip Muehlenbeck, Religion and the Cold War: A Global Perspective (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2012). Thanks also to William Miscamble, CSC for his helpful comments.
18 Another draft reads ‘Men of Christian Ideals Unite! Crush Communism by returning Charles J. Kersten to Congress.’ CJK Series 2, Box 2, Folder 10, MU.
19 Letter Fr. Charles M. O’Hara, SJ, Office of Assistant to President of Marquette University to Charles J. Kersten, 12 August 1959, CJK, Series 1, Fox 1, Folder 1, MU.
20 Radio Speech, WRJN, 24 December 1946, CJK, Series 3, Box 1, Folder 3, MU.
21 American Foreign Policy, hand-written notes. CJK, Series 3, Box 1, Folder 3, MU.
22 Notes for Speech on American Foreign Policy on 7 October 1947, in Rochester and Winona, Kansas. CJK, Series 3, Box 1, Folder: Speeches, 1946–1970, MU.
23 ‘Some Ideas Parrying the Thrust of Atheist Aggression,’ undated, CJK, Series 9, Box 1, Folder 5, Communist Aggression, Notes on statement before the House Foreign Affairs Committee on the Mutual Security Program for FY, 25 July 1952, 1951, CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
24 Letter, Charles J. Kersten to John Foster Dulles, 1 June 1948, CJK Series 1 Box 1, File: Correspondence, Personal, Incoming, MU.
25 Letter, John Foster Dulles to Charles J. Kersten, 9 June 1948, CJK Series 1 Box 1, File: Correspondence, Personal, Incoming, MU.
26 Letter Kersten to Cy McKinnon, 13 March 1960, CJK, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 2, MU.
27 He defeated Andrew Biemiller, a Democrat, in 1946, lost re-election to Biemiller in 1948, and defeated him again in 1950. He lost to Democrat Henry S. Reuss, a former member of the progressive wing of the Republican Party, in 1956.
28 Letter, CJK to George E. Strong, General Counsel, Federal Department of Mediation and Conciliation, 1 August 1958, CJK, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 2, MU.
29 Untitled Document, 7 December 1957, CIA-RDP75-00149R000500450151-4, CIA-FOIA, accessed 26 May 2018.
30 McCarthy supported Kersten’s resolutions and condemned the ‘audacity of the Acheson-Truman-Marshall clique’ who ‘coo like doves of ‘peace’’ when it came to fighting the enemies of communism.’ Letter, McCarthy to CJK, 12 April 1951, CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
31 Cletus Healy, SJ, ‘An Inquiry into the Obligation of Initiating a War of Liberation,’ St. Mary’s College, CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13: Kersten Amendment to the MSA, 1951–54, MU.
32 Memo of Conference with Fr. Edmund Walsh, SJ, 12 June 1947, CJK, Series 9, Box 1, Folder 5, MU.
33 Notes, Handwritten on a paper napkin, undated. CJK, Series 9, Box 1, Folder 5, MU.
34 ‘US Foreign Policy toward the USSR,’ CJK Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
35 ‘Rebuild Germany, Kersten Advises: ‘Economic Sickness’ Retards Europe,’ New York Times (1923–Current File); 26 November 1947; ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times, 46, accessed 12 June 2018.
36 William S. White, ‘Two in House Ask Congress to Order Halt in Soviet Plots: Republicans Urge Military Aid for Any Free Nation in Peril of Communists,’ 13 March 1948, New York Times (1923–Current file); 13 March 1948; ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times, 1, accessed 12 June 2018.
37 26 June 1951: House Foreign Affairs Committee opens hearings on MSA of 1951 – approved on 9 August. House passed the measure 17 August 1951 after two days of debate. CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
38 Kersten Statement before House Foreign Affairs Committee on MSA Act, 4 June 1953, CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
39 Statement by CJK before the House Foreign Affairs Committee on the Mutual Security Program for FY 1952, on 25 July 1951. CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
40 Gray to R.O. Davidson, SHAPE Liaison Office, 29 October 1951, PSB Files Box 1 (Gordon Gray Chrono), Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum, Independence, MO.
41 Ibid.
42 Quoted in Barrett, The CIA and Congress, 105–6. Nine House members spoke in favour of Kersten’s amendment. See Congressional Record, 17 August 1951, 10261–3 Vol. 97, Part 8, 82nd Congress, for a record of the proceedings. See also, Grose, Operation Rollback, 204.
43 Barrett, The CIA and Congress, 103.
44 Kersten speech on House floor, 10 June 1952, CJK Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
45 Barrett, The CIA and Congress, 105–6.
46 ‘Spy Conference Planned in Washington by Kersten, Radio Moscow Reports,’ n.d., CJK, Series 10, Box 1, Folder 1, MU.
47 ‘Use Red Tactics, Vogeler Urges,’ Washington Post, 23 February 1952, RG59, General Records of the DOS, Records Relating to Hungarian Affairs, 1949–1963, Vogeler, Misc. to Vogeler Misc., Box 4, (Vogeler Misc [1]), NARA.
48 Confidential Memorandum on Conference on Psychological Strategy in the Cold War, 22 and 23 February 1952, dated 29 February 1952, prepared by Arthur G. McDowell, PSB Files, Box 4/Class000-General:080: Council Against Communist Aggression, HST.
49 Barrett, The CIA and Congress, 110.
50 ‘Soviet Reaction to Kersten Amendment,’ 22 December 1951, CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
51 Pamphlet (c. 1951) Kersten for Congress Club, CJK, Series 10, Box 1, Folder 1, MU.
52 Proposed NSC Directive NSC10, 10 June 1948, HST-Staff Member and Office Files: NSC File Box 8/Chrono: 1948 (June–July), HST.
53 CIA Historical Staff, “The Clandestine Service Historical Series, Hungary, Vol II, External Operations, 1946–1965,” MORI DocID 1020374. National Security Archives, The George Washington University, http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB206/CSHS_Hungary_Vol2.pdf, pp. 44–5,accessed 17 March 2016.
54 PSB Working Draft D-18a/1: “A National Psychological Program with Respect to Escapees from the Soviet Orbit”: Phase ‘B’, 5 December 1951, PSB Files, Box 28, Class 300: Administration, 383 Psychological Aspects of Phase A Defector Program (1 of 2), HST.
55 Memo for PSB, William H. Godel, prepared by the Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, Intelligence, Department of the Army re Terms of Reference for PSB Working Group on Defector-Refugee Problem, 28 November 1951, PSB Files, Box 28, Class 300-Administration: 383 Psychological Aspects of Phase ‘A’ Defector Program (1 of 2), HST.
56 See Borhi, Hungary in the Cold War, 271; and Grose, Operation Rollback, 104–11.
57 See James Jay Carafano, ‘Mobilizing Europe’s Stateless: America’s Plan for a Cold War Army,’ Journal of Cold War Studies 1, no. 2 (1999): 61–85.
58 Borhi, Hungary in the Cold War, 271; Grose, Operation Rollback: America’s Secret War behind the Iron Curtain (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), 104–11.
59 Report by the Operations Coordinating Board to the National Security Council on Activation of a Volunteer Freedom Corps, 14 June 1955, FRUS, 1955–57, Eastern Europe, Vol. XXV, 55–60. By spring 1955, the LSO strength was 25,974, of which only 168 were former Soviet nationals and 152 were escapees from European satellites.
60 Secret Memo to Director of PSB from M. Cox re Meeting with Congressmen Kersten on 22 January 1952, dated 25 January 1952. PSB Files, Box 29/(Class300-Administration 383.7 Report of Richard Brown on Escapee Program File #2 [1 of 2]), HST.
61 Secret Memo to Director of PSB from M. Cox re Meeting with Congressmen Kersten on 22 January 1952, dated 25 January 1952. PSB Files, Box 29/(Class300-Administration 383.7 Report of Richard Brown on Escapee Program File #2 [1 of 2]), HST.
62 House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Executive Hearing on Use of Funds Under the Kersten Amendment, 5 March 1952, U.S. House of Representatives, US Foreign Policy and the East-West Confrontation: Committee and Subcommittee Hearings and Briefings, Selected Executive Session Hearings of the Committee, 1951–56, Vol. XIV, Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1980, 333–48. See Barrett, The CIA and Congress, 108–11 for an extended analysis of the issues raised at this meeting. The Committee agreed with the CIA to move ahead with the ‘quiet option,’ that is to keep covert operations under wraps, 111. See also Journal of the Office of Legislative Counsel, CIA, 5 March 1952, CIA-RDP-91-R0002000700168-1, CIA-FOIA, accessed 13 June 2018.
63 Minutes of 11th Meeting of PSB at CIA, 27 March 1952, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100063-3, CIA-FOIA, accessed 1 June 2018.
64 Anthony Leviero, ‘Truman Urges Refugee Plan to Let in 300,000 in 3 Years,’ New York Times (1923–Current File); 25 March 1952, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, 1.
65 ‘Escapee Program, 1951,’ CIA-RDP80R01731R003300330002-2, CIA-FOIA, accessed 12 June 2018.
66 Minutes of 8th Meeting of PSB at Pentagon, 10 January 1952, CIA-RDP80-01065A000500100032-7, CIA-FOIA,accessed 1 June 2018.
67 Emphasis mine. Confidential Memo, George A. Morgan to Dr. Allen re Meeting on Political Warfare at Princeton Inn, 10 and 11 May 1952, PSB Files Box 1, Class 000-Federal:00.1 Rand Corporation Study, HST.
68 Speech before National Security Commission of the American Legion in New York, 22 August 1952. CJK, Series 3, Box 1, Folder 4, MU.
69 Secret Memo, Chief, Planning and Program Coordinator to Deputy Director, (Plans) re CIA Position Paper on NSC143, 10 February 1953, CIA-RDP83-00036R000700070045-8, CIA-FOIA, accessed, 1 June 2018. On 14 February 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower instructed the National Security Council to schedule a proposal for a ‘Volunteer Freedom Corps’ for early study. Memorandum by the President to the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council, re Proposal for a Volunteer Freedom Corps, 14 February 1953, FRUS 1952-54, Vol. VIII, p. 181.
70 ‘Communist Reaction to a ‘Volunteer Freedom Corps’,’ 23 March 1953, General CIA Records, CIA-RDP79S01011A001000020016-0, CIA-FOIA, accessed 3 September 2019.
71 CIA Historical Staff Study, ‘The Clandestine Service Historical Series, Hungary.’ A 1953 press clipping and photo, ‘Kersten in Germany,’ shows Kersten reviewing ‘troops of an American guard unit in Kaiserlautern, Germany, composed mostly of Baltic refugees and escapees.’ CJK, Series 10, Box 1, Folder 3 (1953), MU.
72 See also László Borhi and Jason Vincz, trans., Dealing with Dictators: The United States, Hungary, and East Central Europe, 1942–1989 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2016), 95–103.
73 CIA Historical Staff Study, The Clandestine Service Historical Series, Hungary, 47–57. Borhi, Dealing with Dictators, 95–103.
74 Ibid.
75 CIA Historical Staff, ‘The Clandestine Service Historical Series, Hungary,’ 67–70.
76 Memorandum, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs Edward W. Barrett to Deputy Undersecretary of State Matthew re Radio Free Europe, 25 January 1951, FRUS, 1951, Vol. IV, 1206–8.
77 Confidential Memo from Ruth R. Tryon, Assistant Information Officer at US Legation in Budapest to DOS re Refugee Statements, 6 February 1951, RG 59, General Records of the DOS, Records re Claims with Hungary, 1956–1968, Vogeler Case, Box 5, (Vogeler Case 1 of 2), NARA.
78 Jack Raymond Interview with C.D. Jackson, 25 November 1951, New York Times, CJK, Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
79 ‘Escapee Program,’ dated 4/9/54, CJK Series 4, Box 2, Folder 13, MU.
80 Letter Kersten to Allen Dulles, 12 May 1954, enclosing memo signed by Smith re purposes of his committee, RDP80R01731R000500530013-9, CIA-FOIA, accessed 12 June 2018.
81 DOS Telegram (Murphy) re: Kersten statement on committee hearings in Bonn, Munich, and London, 11 June 1954, CIA-RDP91-00682R000300030014-4, CIA-FOIA, accessed 26 May 2018.
82 Untitled, 22 March 1954, CIA-RDP91-00682-R000300030074-8, CIA-FOIA, accessed 26 May 2018.
83 Guide to House Records: Chapter 22: 1947–1968 Communist Aggression, The National Archives, https://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/house/chapter-22-select-communist-aggression.html, accessed 20 June 2018.
84 Memo, Dulles to Wisner, 14 May 1954 Deputies’ Meeting (document redacted), CIA-RDP80B01676R002300150015-7. Kersten met with Dulles on 11 April 1954, to express his appreciation for the assistance and cooperation of the CIA during his recently concluded hearings in Germany, and proposed ‘certain additional cooperation in additional fields’. Memo for Deputy Chief, White House Division re Congressmen Kersten and the Committee on Communist Aggression, 12 August 1954, CIA-RDP91-00682R00300040065-7, CIA-FOIA, accessed 12 June 2018.
85 Journal, Office of Legislative Counsel, CIA, 24 August 1954, CIA-RDP91-00682R000200110057-9. See also Journal of Legislative Counsel, CIA, 25 August 1954 which notes that Wisner has been instructed ‘to keep Kersten informed on Guatemala’ and promised to provide him additional documentary materials. CIA-RDP00682R000200110056-0, CIA-FOIA, accessed 13 June 2018. Dulles also approved a request from Kersten’s committee that a CIA staff member appear before the committee, assured that the committee would be more than willing to include any questions and/or subjects the CIA desired and ‘conversely to exclude such matters as we felt appropriate’. Journal, Office of the Legislative Counsel, CIA, 4 October 1954, CIA-RDP91-00682R000200110035-3, ibid.
86 CJK, Series 10, Box 1, Folder 4 (1954), MU.
87 ‘Latvian Authoress Denounces Kersten,’ Moscow, Pravda, CJK, Series 10, Box 1, Folder 3 (1953), MU.
88 John Prados, Presidents’ Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations since World War II (New York: William Morrow & Sons 1986), 122–4.
89 Handwritten notes on Captive Nations, undated, CJK Series 9 Subject Files, 1943–1972, MU.
90 CJK Comments to Senate Foreign Relations & Armed Forces Committees re Senate Joint Resolution 19 on Middle East, 4 February 1957, CJK, Box 1, Folder 5, MU.
91 ‘Freedom or War?’ A Paper for the Restoration of Independence and Political Liberty in Eastern Europe, February 1957, Vol. I, No. 2., CJK, Series 9, Box 2, Folder 7, MU.
92 H.W. Brands, ‘A Cold War Foreign Legion? The Eisenhower Administration and the Volunteer Freedom Corps,’ Military Affairs 52, no. 1 (1988): 7–11; and Susan B. Carruthers, ‘Between Camps: Eastern Bloc ‘Escapees’ and Cold War Borderlands,’ American Quarterly 57, no. 3, Legal Borderlands: Law and the Construction of American Borders (2005): 911–42.
93 The PPS initiated psychological operations in Central and Eastern Europe, including the Voice of America, actions to prevent communist electoral victories in France and Italy, and other actions which can be described as ‘limited and amateurish’. These early successes convinced the PPS to undertake actions to overthrow the pro-Kremlin regime in Albania. This resulted in at least five joint Anglo-American operations against Albania between 1949 and 1951. (Sarah-Jane Corke, ‘Bridging the Gap: Containment, Covert Action and the Search for the Missing Link in American Cold War Policy,’ The Journal of Strategic Studies 20, no. 4 (1997): 49. See also Prados, Presidents’ Secret Wars, 37–52; and Grose, Operation Rollback.
94 ‘Foreign Policy Impediments of Actions Against USSR,’ (ca. 1955), CJK, Series 9, Folder 8, MU.
95 Charles H. Briscoe, ‘America’s Foreign Legionnaires: The Lodge Act Soldiers-Part II, Office of the Command Historian,’ Veritas:Journal of Army Special Operations History 5, no. 2 (2009), https://www.soc.mil/ARSOF_History/articles/v5n2_lodge_act_part_2_page_1.html accessed 13 June 2018.
96 When James J. McTigue, Counsel to the Kersten Committee on Communist Aggression, wanted to include a statement of appreciation for the ‘fine cooperation which the Committee has received from the CIA,’ Pforzheimer, the CIA Legislative Counsel, requested that the Committee delete its words of appreciation from the report, noting ‘CIA, as usual, would prefer to remain anonymous.’ Journal of Office of Legislative Counsel, 8 December 1954, CIA-RDP91-00682R000200110004-7, CIA-FOIA, accessed 13 June 2018.
97 Letter to Charles Kersten from Allen Dulles forwarding a translation from 7 January 1955, issue of Izvestiya, titled, ‘Kersten was Preparing a Crusade,’ CJK, Series 9, Box 1, Folder 6, MU.
98 Letter from Ernest V. Rigoni, Chairman, Hungarian National Liberation Committee to Kersten, 5 October 1970, CJK, Series 9, Box 4, Folder 14, MU.
99 See for example, Peter Schweizer, Victory: The Reagan Administration’s Secret Strategy that Hastened the Collapse of the Soviet Union (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1996); John Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin, 2006) and other works of the ‘Reagan Victory School.’
100 See, for example, Agostino Giovagnoli, ‘Karol Woljtyla and the End of the Cold War,’ in Reinterpreting the End of the Cold War, ed. Silvio Pons and Federico Romero (London: Frank Cass, 2005).
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Margaret M. Manchester
Margaret M. Manchester A native of Hungary, Manchester fled to the United States during the Hungarian Revolution. She teaches courses primarily in US diplomatic and Cold War history.