A global problem in a divided world: climate change research during the late Cold War, 1972–1991

ABSTRACT

This article argues that global environmental changes provided a fruitful ground for scientific collaboration during the Cold War. Taking the climate research cooperation of the 1972 US-USSR Agreement on Environmental Protection as a lens, this article shows how both superpowers, initially involved in weather warfare against each other, soon cooperated to tackle the rising problem of climate change. The study reveals that while the cooperation was foremost a scientific undertaking driven by the need for data it nevertheless constantly oscillated between scientific collaboration to advance one’s own research agenda and the political tensions of the Cold War rivalry.

KEYWORDS:

• Scientific collaboration
• Cold War
• climate change
• Soviet science
• environmental research

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

¹ Elena Aronova and Simone Turchetti, eds., Science Studies during the Cold War and Beyond: Paradigms Defected (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016); Jeroen Van Dongen, ed., Cold War Science and the Transatlantic Circulation of Knowledge (Leiden: Brill, 2015); Manfred Sapper and Volker Weichsel, eds., special issue, ‘Kooperation trotz Konfrontation. Wissenschaft und Technik im Kalten Krieg’, Osteuropa 59, no. 10 (2009) ; and Loren Graham, Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: A Short History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).

² Stephen Brain, ‘The Appeal of Appearing Green: Soviet-American Ideological Competition and Cold War Environmental Diplomacy’, Cold War History 16, no. 4 (2016): 443–62; Jacob Darwin Hamblin, Arming Mother Nature: The Birth of Catastrophic Environmentalism (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2013); and Simo Laakonen, Viktor Pal, and Richard Tucker, ‘The Cold War and Environmental History: Complementary Fields’, Cold War History 16, no. 4 (2016): 377–94.

³ Paul N. Edwards, A Vast Machine: Computer Models, Climate Data, and the Politics of Global Warming (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010).

⁴ James Delbourgo, ‘The Knowing World: A New Global History of Science’, History of Science 57, no. 3 (2019): 373–99; Fa-ti Fan, ‘The Global Turn in the History of Science’, East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal 6, no. 2 (2012): 249–58; and Stuart McCook, ‘Introduction (Focus: Global Currents in National Histories of Science)’, Isis 104, no. 4 (2013): 773–6.

⁵ Hunter Heyck and David Kaiser, ‘Introduction (Focus: New Perspectives on Science and the Cold War)’, Isis 101, no. 2 (2010): 326–66 ; Van Dongen, ed., Cold War Science and the Transatlantic Circulation. On North-South histories during the Cold War see, for example, Eden Medina, Cybernetic Revolutionaries: Technology and Politics in Allende’s Chile (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011).

⁶ Simone Turchetti and Peder Roberts, eds., The Surveillance Imperative: Geosciences during the Cold War and Beyond (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); and Jacob Darwin Hamblin, Oceanographers and the Cold War: Disciples of Marine Science (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2016).

⁷ Hamblin, Arming Mother Nature; and Naomi Oreskes and John Krige, eds., Science and Technology in the Global Cold War (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014).

⁸ Sapper and Weichsel, eds., special issue, ‘Kooperation trotz Konfrontation’; Simo Mikkonen and Pia Koivunen, eds., Beyond the Divide: Entangled Histories of Cold War Europe (New York: Berghahn Books, 2018); and Hamblin, Oceanographers and the Cold War.

⁹ For pre-Cold War scientific exchange and knowledge circulation see for example: Jan Arend, ‘Russian Science in Translation: How Pochvovedenie Was Brought to the West, c. 1875–1945ʹ, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 18, no. 4 (2017): 683–708.

¹⁰ Ksenia Tatarchenko, ‘“Lions – Marchuk”: The Soviet-French Cooperation in Computing’, in Perspectives on Soviet and Russian Computing, ed. John Impagliazzo and Eduard Proydakov (Berlin: Springer, 2011), 235–42; Sampsa Kaataja, ‘Expert Groups Closing the Divide. Estonian-Finnish Computing Cooperation since the 1960s’, in Beyond the Divide, ed. Simo Mikkonen and Pia Koivunen, 101–20; and Fabian Lüscher, ‘The Nuclear Spirit of Geneva: Boundary-Crossing Relationships of Soviet Atomic Scientists after 1955ʹ, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 66, no. 1 (2018): 20–44.

¹¹ Marc Elie, ‘Formulating the Global Environment: Soviet Soil Scientists and the International Desertification Discussion, 1968–91ʹ, The Slavonic and East European Review 93, no. 1 (2015): 181–204.

¹² I would like to thank Connor Stewart Hunter for his generosity and for sharing his material from the Environmental Science and Public Policy Archives (ESPPA).

¹³ Katja Doose, Tektonik der Perestroika: Das Erdbeben und die Neuordnung Armeniens, 1985–1998 (Cologne: Böhlau), 30–2.

¹⁴ Kristine C. Harper, Make it Rain: State Control of the Atmosphere in Twentieth-Century America (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2017), 4.

¹⁵ Ronald E. Doel, ‘Constituting the Postwar Earth Sciences: The Military’s Influence on the Environmental Sciences in the USA after 1945ʹ, Social Studies of Science 33, no. 5 (2003): 638.

¹⁶ Harper, Make it Rain, 81.

¹⁷ Ibid.

¹⁸ Harper, Make it Rain, ch. 7.

¹⁹ For a full history on weather and climate modification in the US see Harper, Make it Rain; James R. Fleming, Fixing the Sky (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012); and Chunglin Kwa, ‘The Rise and Fall of Weather Modification: Changes in American Attitudes Toward Technology, Nature and Society’, in Changing the Atmosphere: Expert Knowledge and Environmental Governance, ed. Clark A. Miller and Paul N. Edwards (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 135–65.

²⁰ David Keith, ‘Geoingeneering the Climate: History and Prospect’, Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 25 (2000): 251; Boris Belge and Klaus Gestwa, ‘Wetterkriege und Klimawandel: Meteorologie im Kalten Krieg’, Osteuropa 59, no. 10 (2009): 29; and Evgeniy Konstantinovich Fedorov, Vozdeistvie cheloveka na meteorologicheskie protsessy, Voprosy Filosofii 4 (1958).

²¹ Evgeniy Gernet, Ledyanie lishai (Moscow: Nauka, 1980), 24–5.

²² Stephen Brain, ‘The Great Stalin Plan for the Transformation of Nature’, Environmental History 15, no. 4 (2010): 670–700; and Jonathan D. Oldfield, ‘Climate Modification and Climate Change Debates Among Soviet Physical Geographers, 1940s–1960s’, WIREs Climate Change 4 (2013): 513–24.

²³ For a rough overview of ideas see: Nikolay T. Zikeev and George A. Doumani, Weather Modification in the Soviet Union, 1946–1966: A Selected Annotated Bibliography (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1967).

²⁴ Pavel Filin, Margarita Emelina, and Mikhail Savinov, Arktika za gran’yu fantastiki. Budushchee severa glazami sovetskikh inzhenerov, izobretatelej i pisateley (Paulsen: Moscow, 2019), 24.

²⁵ Nikolai Rusin, Chelovek menyaet klimat (Moscow: Sovetskaya Rossiya, 1962), 23.

²⁶ Commission of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences, ‘Stenogramm’, file 541-1-39, Archive of the Russian Academy of Science (ARAN), Moscow; and Klaus Gestwa, ‘“Energetische Brücken” und “Klimafabriken”: Das energetische Weltbild der Sowjetunion’, Osteuropa 9–10 (2004): 30.

²⁷ Mikhail I. Budyko, ‘Nekotorye puty na vozdeistviya na klimat’, Meteorologiya i Gidrologiya 2 (1962): 3–8.

²⁸ Mikhail I. Budyko, Teplovoj balance zemnoj poverkhnosti (Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 1956), English translation followed almost immediately in 1958.

²⁹ Aleksandr P. Galtsov and A. S. Сheplygina, ‘Vtoroe soveshchanie po probleme preobrazovaniya klimata’, Izvestiya akademii nauk SSSR, seriya geograficheskaya 5 (1962): 184–7; see also 1959 CIA report on Soviet weather control https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/document/cia-rdp79r00890a001100020012-0 (last accessed 11 March 2020).

³⁰ Budyko, ‘Nekotorye puty’, 3.

³¹ Mikhail I. Budyko et al., ‘Perspektivy vozdeystviya na global’nyy klimat’, Izvestiya akademii nauk SSSR, seriya geograficheskaya 2 (1974): 11–23.

³² Mikhail I. Budyko, Klimat v proshlom i budushchem (Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 1980), 242–4.

³³ Paul N. Edwards, ‘Entangled Histories: Climate Science and Nuclear Weapons Research’, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist 68, no. 4 (2012): 28–40.

³⁴ Galtsov and Сheplygina, ‘Vtoroe soveshchanie’, 186.

³⁵ Oleg Anisimov, ‘Klimat – eto ne vsegda konstanta. K 100-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya akademica RAN M. I. Budyko’, Vestnik rossijskoj akademii nauk 90, no. 1 (2020): 75. At around the same time US climatologist William D. Sellers (1928–2014) developed a similar model.

³⁶ See note 30.

³⁷ Mikhail I. Budyko, ‘The Effect of Solar Radiation Variations on the Climate of the Earth’, Tellus 11, no. 5 (1969), 611–619.

³⁸ Christopher D. Hollings, Scientific Communication Across the Iron Curtain (Cham: Springer, 2016), 24–6.

³⁹ Yale Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003); Nigel Gould-Davis, ‘The Logic of Soviet Cultural Diplomacy’, Diplomatic History 27 (2003): 193–214; and Naima Prevots, Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2001).

⁴⁰ Loren Graham, ‘How Valuable are Scientific Exchanges with the Soviet Union?’, Science 202, no. 4366 (1978): 389.

⁴¹ Donald Kelley, ‘American-Soviet Cooperation in Environmental Protection and Conservation’, in Sectors of Mutual Benefit in U.S.-Soviet Relations, ed. Nish Jamgotch Jr. (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1985), 103–26 (112).

⁴² EPA leaflet ‘US-USSR Environmental Agreement’, https://nepis.epa.gov (last accessed 25 October 2018).

⁴³ Quote taken from ‘US-USSR Agreement on Environmental Protection’, International Legal Materials 11, no. 4 (1972): 761–5.

⁴⁴ Ibid.

⁴⁵ Brooks J. Flippen, ‘Richard Nixon, Russel Train, and the Birth of Modern American Environmental Diplomacy’, Diplomatic History 32, no. 4 (2008): 614.

⁴⁶ Stephen Macekura, ‘The Limits of the Global Community: The Nixon Administration and Global Environmental Politics’, Cold War History 11, no. 4 (2011): 493.

⁴⁷ Ibid., 497.

⁴⁸ National Security Council Staff, ‘President’s Trip Files’, NSC Files, Box 487, National Archives, at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v14/d230#fn:1.5.4.4.26.24.8.2 (last accessed 30 October 2018).

⁴⁹ Brain, ‘The Appeal of Appearing Green’.

⁵⁰ Douglas R. Weiner, A Little Corner of Freedom: Russian Nature Protection from Stalin to Gorbachev (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 182–200; and Klaus Gestwa, ‘Ökologischer Notstand und sozialer Protest’, Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 43 (2003): 353.

⁵¹ XXIV s’ezd kommunisticheskoi Partii sovetskogo Soiuza, Moscow 1971, 54, 417 and 501, quoted after Brain, ‘The Appeal of Appearing Green’, 17.

⁵² Vladimir A. Kirillin, ‘O merakh po dal’neyshemu ulutsheniyu okhrany prirody i ratsional’nomy ispolzovaniyu prirodnykh resursov’, Pravda, 20 September 1972, 2. On the atcual implementation of Soviet environmental policies see for example Coumel Laurent and Marc Elie, eds., special issue, 'A Belated and Tragic Ecological Revolution: Nature, Disasters, and Green Activists in the Soviet Union and the Post‑Soviet States, 1960s–2010s' , Soviet and Post‑Soviet Review, 40, no.  2 (2013); Nicholas Breyfogle, ed., Eurasian Environments: Nature and Ecology in Imperial Russia and Soviet History (Pittsburgh: University Press, 2018); Katja Doose, 'Green Nationalism? The Transformation of Environmentalism in Soviet Armenia, 1969-1991', Ab Imperio 1 (2019): 181-205. 

⁵³ National Security Council Staff, ‘President’s Trip Files’, NSC Files, Box 487, National Archives, at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v14/d230#fn:1.5.4.4.26.24.8.2 (last accessed 30 October 2018).

⁵⁴ Brain, ‘The Appeal of Appearing Green’.

⁵⁵ Kelley, ‘American-Soviet Cooperation’, 110.

⁵⁶ Ibid., 111.

⁵⁷ Graham, Science in Russia and the Soviet Union, 233; and Doose, Tektonik der Perestroika, 30–2.

⁵⁸ 1972, K. Chubakov, f. 8061, op. 9, d. 2678a, l. 5, Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv ekonomiki (Russian State Archive of the Economy) (RGAE), Moscow.

⁵⁹ Kelley, ‘American-Soviet Cooperation’, 120.

⁶⁰ Number dropped from over 300 to 67 per year, see Statement of Fitzhugh Green before the US House of Representatives Special Subcommittee on the US-Pacific Rim Trade Energy and Commerce Committee, 28 June 1985, United States Congress House Committee on Energy and Commerce Special Subcommittee on U.S-Pacific Rim: The Soviet Role in Pacific Rim Trade: US-Soviet Environmental Cooperation, 10.

⁶¹ Renee Tatusko, Cooperation in Climate Research: An Evaluation of the Activities conducted under US-USSR Agreement for Environmental Protection since 1974 (Washington: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1990), 65.

⁶² See 1995 Protocol for Working Group VIII: Influence of environmental changes on climate. US-Russia agreement on cooperation in the field of protection of the environment and natural resources. Final report, 1 January 1994–31 December 1994, report, 1 May 1995.

⁶³ Working Group VIII on climate change consisted of three subgroups, focusing on the impact of heat balance, pollution of the atmosphere and changing sun activity on the climate. In this section I only focus on the first.

⁶⁴ For an overview of Soviet climate change research see: Jonathan D. Oldfield, ‘Imagining Climates Past, Present and Future: Soviet Contributions to the Science of Anthropogenic Climate Change, 1953–1991’, Journal of Historical Geography 60 (2018): 41–51; for an overview of Western climate change research see Spencer R. Weart, The Discovery of Global Warming (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008); and Edwards, A Vast Machine.

⁶⁵ Mikhail Budyko, interviewed by Spencer Weart, 25 March 1990, Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD, USA, www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/31675 (last accessed 14 April 2020); and Mikhail I. Budyko, Vliyanie Cheloveka na Klimat (Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 1972), 35.

⁶⁶ Alan Hecht, ‘Past, Present and Future: Urgency of Dealing with Climate Change’, Atmospheric and Climate Sciences 4 (2014): 782.

⁶⁷ For an overview see Katja Doose and Jonathan D. Oldfield, ‘Natural and Anthropogenic Climate Change Understanding in the Soviet Union, 1960s–1980s’, in Climate Change Discourse in Russia. Past and Present, ed. Marianna Poberezhskaya and Teresa Ashe (London: Routledge, 2019), 17–31.

⁶⁸ Kirillin, ‘O merakh po dal’neyshemu uluchsheniyu okhrany prirody’, 2.

⁶⁹ Mikhail I. Budyko, ‘O proiskhozhdenii lednikovykh epokh’, Meteorologiia i gidrologiia 11 (1968); Mikhail I. Budyko, Atmosfernaia uglekislota i klimat (Moscow: Gidrometeoizdat, 1973); and Mikhail I. Budyko, The Earth’s Climate: Past and Future (New York: Academic Press, 1982), 104–9.

⁷⁰ Gennadiy V. Menzhulin, ‘Vliyaniye izmeneniy klimata na urozhaynost’ sel’skokhozyaystvennykh kul’tur’, Trudy GGO 365 (1976): 41–8; and Oleg D. Sirotenko, ‘Otsenka vliyaniya vozmozhnykh kolebaniy i izmeneniy klimata na produktivnost’ sel’skogo khozyaystva’, Fizika atmosfery i okeana 20, no. 11 (1984): 1104–10.

⁷¹ Tatusko, Cooperation in Climate Research, 70.

⁷² Michael MacCracken (climatologist), in discussion with the author, March 2018.

⁷³ Ibid., November 2018.

⁷⁴ University of Washington, ‘Proposal for Participation’, EPA, Records of the US/USSR Joint Commission on Environmental Programs, 1972–1976. Bethesda, MD: University Publications of America, 1974.

⁷⁵ Edwards, A Vast Machine, 311; Alan Robock, ‘The Russian Surface Temperature Data Set’, Journal of Applied Meteorology 21, no. 12 (1982):1781–5.

⁷⁶ 1975, E. Borisenkov, f. 8061, op. 9, d. 3583, l. 4, RGAE.

⁷⁷ The US volumes were selected among the Outstanding Academic Books of 1984 of Choice magazine; and Tatusko, Cooperation in Climate Research, 6–7.

⁷⁸ 1976, E. Borisenkov, f. 8061, op. 9, d. 3905, l. 34, RGAE.

⁷⁹ Tatusko, Cooperation in Climate Research, 68.

⁸⁰ Ibid., 24.

⁸¹ Ibid., 37.

⁸² Ibid., 41.

⁸³ In 1972 the Communist Party had imposed a party penalty (partvzyskaniia) on him. Several interviewees stated that he was unofficially accused of nepotism and for hiring only Jewish scientists, see 1972 A. Chuvaev, f. 3111, op. 4, d. 42, l. 51 Central State Archive of Historical and Political Documents of St. Petersburg (TsGAIPD), St. Petersburg.

⁸⁴ Konstantin Ya. Vinnikov (climatologist), in discussion with the author, January 2018.

⁸⁵ Simo Laakkonen and Tuomas Räsänen, ‘Cold War Science Diplomacy in the Baltic Sea Region: Beginnings of East-West Cooperation in Marine Protection’, in Northern Europe in the Cold War, 1965–1990. East-West Interactions of Trade, Culture, and Security, ed. Paul Villaume, Ann-Marie Ekengren, and Rasmus Mariager (Turku: Aleksanteri Institute, 2016), 39.

⁸⁶ 1974, E. Borisenkov, f. 8061, op. 9, d. 3217, l. 1, RGAE.

⁸⁷ Arkadiy Chernyy, Vserossiyskiy institut nauchnoy i tekhnicheskoy informatsii: 50 let sluzheniya naukу (Moscow: VINITI, 2005); and Michael D. Gordin, Scientific Babel: How Science was Done Before and After Global English (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 250–1.

⁸⁸ MacCracken, discussion.

⁸⁹ Gerald R. North, The Rise of Climate Science, a Memoir by Gerald R. North (College Station, TX: Texas A&M Press, 2020), 58.

⁹⁰ MacCracken, discussion.

⁹¹ Ibid.

⁹² For the 1950s, see Ronald E. Doel, Dieter Hoffmann, and Nikolai Krementsov, ‘National States and International Science: A Comparative History of International Science Congresses in Hitler’s Germany, Stalin’s Russia, and Cold War United States’, Osiris, 2nd Series, 20 (2005): 73.

⁹³ MacCracken, discussion.

⁹⁴ US Department of Commerce, ‘Trip Report’, file 103967-015-0752, EPA archives, Washington D.C.

⁹⁵ Alan Hecht, email message to author, 6 June 2018.

⁹⁶ 1976 E. Borisenkov, f. 8061, op. 9, d. 3905, l. 12, RGAE.

⁹⁷ Ibid., 16.

⁹⁸ Ibid., 36.

⁹⁹ Ibid., 38.

¹⁰⁰ 1978, V. Meleshko, f. 8061, op. 11, d. 550, l. 167–8, RGAE.

¹⁰¹ Gabriel Henderson, ‘Governing the Hazards of Climate. The Development of the National Climate Program Act, 1977–1981ʹ, Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences 46, no. 2 (2016): 207–42.

¹⁰² 1977, M. Budyko, f. 8061, op. 9, d. 4388, l. 29, RGAE.

¹⁰³ 1978, E. Borisenkov, f. 8061, op. 11, d. 295, 31-2, RGAE.

¹⁰⁴ 1980, USSR State Commission for Science and Technology, f. 9480, op. 12, d. 1513a, RGAE.

¹⁰⁵ 1986, M. MacCracken, box 10, folder 96, Environmental Science and Public Policy Archives (ESPPA), Cambridge, MA.

¹⁰⁶ 1986, A. Hecht, box 11, folder 105, ESPPA.

¹⁰⁷ Soviet earth scientists had a strong tradition of working on palaeoclimatology, as, for example, in the works of Konstantin K. Markov and Innokenti P. Gerasimov; see Oldfield, ‘Imagining Climates Past’, 46.

¹⁰⁸ Other projects followed in 1988, for the history of the Pliocene Research, Interpretation and Synoptic Mapping Project (PRISM) project see: Marci M. Robinson, ‘Pliocene Climate Lessons: An Ongoing Reconstruction of a Warmer Earth 3 Million Years Ago Helps Test Climate-Change Forecasts’, American Scientist 3, no. 99 (2011): 228–35.

¹⁰⁹ The model is explained in detail in: Mikhail I. Budyko and Yuri A. Izrael, Antropogennye izmeneniya klimata (Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 1987).

¹¹⁰ Robinson, ‘Pliocene Climate Lessons’, 234.

¹¹¹ 1986. M. MacCracken. ‘Trip report to the USSR’, box 10, folder 101, ESPPA.

¹¹² Ibid.

¹¹³ Ibid.

¹¹⁴ MacCracken, discussion.

¹¹⁵ Office of Research and Development of the CIA: A Study of Climatological Research as it Pertains to Intelligence Problems, August 1974, 1.

¹¹⁶ 1976 E. Epstein, file 103,967-015-0631, EPA archives.

¹¹⁷ Michael MacCracken et al., Prospects for Future Climate: A Special US/USSR Report on Climate and Climate Change (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1990), xii.

¹¹⁸ Ibid. Words in italic and the square brackets were added by MacCracken after reading the interview transcript.

¹¹⁹ Ibid.

¹²⁰ Ibid.

¹²¹ MacCracken et al., Prospects for Future Climate, xii. Italics added by the author.

¹²² Bert Bolin et al., eds., The Greenhouse Effect, Climatic Change, and Ecosystems. SCOPE Report No. 29 (Chichester: John Wiley): xx–xxi.

¹²³ Spencer Weart, ‘The Evolution of International Cooperation in Climate Science’, Journal of International Organization Studies 3, no. 1 (2012): 54.

¹²⁴ Ibid., 56.

¹²⁵ Tora Skodvin, Structure and Agent in the Scientific Diplomacy of Climate Change: An Empirical Case Study of Science-Policy Interaction in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000), 138–42.

¹²⁶ 1990, IPCC, ‘Fax to John Houghton’, file not catalogued, IPCC archives.

¹²⁷ Ibid.

¹²⁸ Email A. Hecht to author, 6 June 2018.

¹²⁹ Edwards, A Vast Machine, 171.

¹³⁰ Michael Oppenheimer et al., Discerning Experts the Practices of Scientific Assessment for Environmental Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019), 17.

¹³¹ 1995 Protocol. Working Group VIII.

¹³² Veli-Pekka Tynkynen and Nina Tynkkynen, ‘Climate Denial Revisited: (Re)contextualising Russian Public Discourse on Climate Change during Putin 2.0ʹ, Europe-Asia Studies 70, no. 7 (2018): 1103–20.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council [AH/P004431/1].