Soldiers of Fortune, Soldiers of God: Evangelical Mercenaries and the Making of the Rhodesian-American Religious Lobby, 1965–1980

ABSTRACT

This article tracks the emergence, evolution, and decline of the Rhodesian-American religious lobby, a transnational network of churches, magazines, lobbying groups, and other non-state actors that operated during the Rhodesian Bush War from 1965 to 1980. Voicing its concerns in religious, racial, and anticommunist terms, the lobby recruited US combatants into the Rhodesian Security Forces and mobilised US evangelicals to press political leaders to recognise Rhodesian sovereignty. By threading together the post-Vietnam mercenary diaspora with waning segregationist groups and the emerging Christian Right in the United States, the lobby significantly shaped US-Rhodesia relations and global far-right politics in the late Cold War.

KEYWORDS:

• Christian Right
• Jerry Falwell
• Evangelicals
• Mercenaries
• Rhodesian-American religious lobby

Disclosure Statement

The author reports there are no competing interests to declare.

Notes

¹ John Alan Coey, A Martyr Speaks: Journal of the Late John Alan Coey (Fletcher, NC: New Puritan Library, 1988), 77–8; David Anable, ‘The Return of the Mercenaries’, Africa Report 20:6 (December 1975), 5; Luise White, Fighting and Writing: The Rhodesian Army at War and Postwar (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2021), 171–2.

² Estimates of the number of American combatants in the Rhodesian Bush War vary widely. 400 was a common number cited by journalists at the conflict’s height. – see Smith Hempstone, ‘Why Americans Are Fighting on Rhodesia’s Front Lines’, U.S. News & World Report, 23 May 1977; Arnaud de Borchgrave, ‘Smith’s Yankee Recruits’, Newsweek, 12 September 1977. Luise White has given a lower estimate of 100 ‘at any given time’ – see White, Fighting and Writing, 174. Others have pegged the number at 1,000 to 2,000 in total – see Gerald Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun: The United States and the War Against Zimbabwe, 1965-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 27–8. I find Horne’s argument that the range of estimates reflected the high attrition rate of Americans serving in the Rhodesian armed forces compelling – that 1,000 to 2,000 travelled to Rhodesia, but only a few hundred served for a significant period. Also see Kathleen Belew, Bring the War Home: The White Power Movement and Paramilitary America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 79–80.

³ White, Fighting and Writing, 173.

⁴ Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001). On US-Rhodesia relations, see Andrew DeRoche, Black, White, and Chrome: The United States and Zimbabwe 1953-1998 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1998); Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun; Nancy Mitchell, ‘Tropes of the Cold War: Jimmy Carter and Rhodesia’, Cold War History 7:2 (May 2007), 263–83; Eddie Michel, The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy Toward Rhodesia During the UDI Era, 1965–1979 (London: Routledge, 2019); Timothy Lewis Scarnecchia, Race and Diplomacy in Zimbabwe: The Cold War and Decolonization, 1960–1984 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021).

⁵ On the influence campaigns of Rhodesia and other African quasi-states of the postcolonial era, see Josiah Brownell, Struggles for Self-Determination: The Denial of Reactionary Statehood in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021).

⁶ On American mercenaries in Rhodesia, see Richard A. Lobban, ‘American Mercenaries in Rhodesia’, Journal of Southern Africa Affairs 3:3 (July 1978), 319–25; White, Fighting and Writing, 167–96. On transnational currents that shaped the late-twentieth-century American Right, see Klaas Voß, ‘Plausibly Deniable: Mercenaries in U.S. Covert Interventions During the Cold War, 1964-1987’, Cold War History 16:1 (2016), 37–60; Kyle Burke, Revolutionaries for the Right: Anticommunist Internationalism and Paramilitary Warfare in the Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2018); Belew, Bring the War Home; Zoe Hyman, ‘Transatlantic White Supremacy: American Segregationists and International Racism After Civil Rights’, in Daniel Geary, Camilla Schofield, and Jennifer Sutton, eds., Global White Nationalism: From Apartheid to Trump (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2020), 187–228.

⁷ Melani McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders: A Global History of American Evangelicals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018); Lauren Frances Turek, To Bring the Good News to All Nations: Evangelical Influence on Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Relations (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2020). I adopt McAlister’s description of evangelicalism as a Protestant impulse pairing a theological emphasis on ‘the Bible, the cross, personal salvation, and evangelism’ with an ‘entrepreneurial and populist’ spirit vested in ‘decentralized denominations and innovative independent organizations.’ See McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders, 5. On the relationship between evangelicalism and conservatism, I follow Michael McVicar’s description of the two as ‘mutually coconstructing discursive structures that shared intellectual and organizational resources while remaining heuristically distinguishable.’ See Michael J. McVicar, Christian Reconstruction: R.J. Rushdoony and American Religious Conservatism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 10.

⁸ Richard Jordan, ‘A Militant Crusade in Africa: The Great Commission and Segregation’, Church History 83:4 (December 2014), 958. See also Daniel Geary, ‘From Belfast to Bob Jones: Ian Paisley, Protestant Fundamentalism, and the Transatlantic Right’, in Geary, Schofield, and Sutton, Global White Nationalism, 131–54; Augusta Dell’Omo, ‘Infernal Handiwork: Trinity Broadcasting Network Aids Apartheid South Africa, 1980-1994’, Diplomatic History 45:4 (September 2021), 767–93.

⁹ Anthea Butler, White Evangelical Racism: The Politics of Morality in America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021); Randall Balmer, Bad Faith: Race and the Rise of the Religious Right (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2021).

¹⁰ Jesse Curtis, The Myth of Colorblind Christians: Evangelicals and White Supremacy in the Civil Rights Era (New York: New York University Press, 2021).

¹¹ Quoted in Donal Lowry, ‘The Impact of Anti-communism on White Rhodesian Political Culture, ca. 1920s–1980’, Cold War History 7:2 (2007), 182; Brownell, Struggles for Self-Determination, 29, 47, 82.

¹² Lowry, ‘The Impact of Anti-communism’, 177; Chengetai J. Zvobgo, ‘Church and State in Rhodesia: From the Unilateral Declaration of Independence to the Pearce Commission, 1965–72’, Journal of Southern African Studies 31:2 (2005), 381–402.

¹³ ‘It Will Take Only 3 Bills to Save Our Country’, American Challenge (Birmingham, AL, October 1970), Social Movements Collection, Box 13, Folder 77, Vietnam Center and Sam Johnson Vietnam Archive, Texas Tech University, [accessed on 7 March 2022 at https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=14511377001]; Josiah Brownell, ‘Diplomatic Lepers: The Katangan and Rhodesian Foreign Missions in the United States and the Politics of Nonrecognition’, International Journal of African Historical Studies 47:2 (2014), 226–32.

¹⁴ Sara Diamond, Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States (New York: Guilford Press, 1995), 118–9, 119n46; DeRoche, Black, White, and Chrome, 145–6, 155; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 101–5.

¹⁵ Jordan, ‘A Militant Crusade in Africa’, 983; Brownell, ‘Diplomatic Lepers’: 234; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 104–5.

¹⁶ Paul L. Moorcraft, A Short Thousand Years: The End of Rhodesia’s Rebellion (Salisbury: Khenty Press, 1979), 69.

¹⁷ McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders, 8–9, 46–8; Gene Zubovich, ‘The U.S. Culture Wars Abroad: Liberal-Evangelical Rivalry and Decolonization in Southern Africa, 1968–1994’, Journal of American History 110:2 (2023), 308–32. On Rhodesian churches’ opposition to the Smith regime, see Odhiambo Okite, ‘Ian Smith’s Rhodesia: Only the Churches Stand in the Way’, Christianity Today, 5 June 1970, 44.

¹⁸ Jordan, ‘A Militant Crusade in Africa’, 975–8.

¹⁹ White, Fighting and Writing, 30.

²⁰ On Coey, see White, Fighting and Writing, 171–2; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 224–6. See the brief editor’s note in Coey, A Martyr Speaks, vi.

²¹ Ibid., 21.

²² Ibid., 100, cf. 54.

²³ Ibid., 148.

²⁴ ‘Christian Activism’, quoted in Coey, A Martyr Speaks, 3–4.

²⁵ Ibid., 77–8.

²⁶ Ibid., 40.

²⁷ Ibid., 135.

²⁸ Ibid., 147.

²⁹ Ibid., 67–8.

³⁰ Ibid., 61–2.

³¹ Ibid., 95.

³² Ibid., 89.

³³ Hyman, ‘Transatlantic White Supremacy’, 193–4.

³⁴ Ken Flower, Serving Secretly: Rhodesia’s CIO Chief on Record (Alberton: Galago, 1987), 129–30; Filipe Ribiero de Meneses and Robert McNamara, The White Redoubt: The Great Powers and the Struggle for Southern Africa (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2018), 201–2; Scarnecchia, Race and Diplomacy, 55-90.

³⁵ White, Fighting and Writing, 175–76; Caute, Under the Skin, 41–6; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 203; Brownell, The Collapse of Rhodesia, 125.

³⁶ Blake Whitaker, ‘Fear and Money: The Strategic Propaganda Conflict During the Zimbabwean War for Liberation’, in Toyin Falola and Charles Thomas, eds., Securing Africa: Local Crises and Foreign Interventions (New York: Routledge, 2014), 74–5.

³⁷ Robert K. Brown, ‘American Mercenaries in Africa’, Soldier of Fortune [hereafter SOF], Summer 1975, 22–7; ‘Major Nick Lamprecht’, SOF, Spring 1977, 13, 61; ‘SOF Recon: Action in Southern Africa’, SOF, Spring 1977, 14–21.

³⁸ Belew, Bring the War Home, 34; Burke, Revolutionaries for the Right, 108–9; Voß, ‘Plausibly Deniable’, 52–4.

³⁹ Jeff Cooper, ‘One Man’s View: Rhodesia Unbound’, SOF, May 1978, 35.

⁴⁰ ‘Are You Helping To Finance Terrorists in South Africa and Rhodesia?’, SOF, Spring 1977, 8.

⁴¹ ‘Soldier of Fortune - The Journal of Professional Adventurers’, SOF, September 1977, 4. This practice appears to have ended with the September 1978 issue.

⁴² Robin Moore, Rhodesia (New York: Condor, 1977), front cover; White, Fighting and Writing, 183; ‘SOF Interviews Robin Moore’, SOF, September 1978, 58–9, 77–8.

⁴³ Christopher Hitchens, ‘High Camp in Rhodesia’, New Statesman, 2 September 1977, 272; Robin Moore, ‘The Soldiers of Fortune’, The New York Times, 28 July 1978, A23.

⁴⁴ Roger A. Freeman, ‘Why Does the U.S. Government Want to Destroy Rhodesia?’, Human Events, 26 June 1976, 8. Human Events advertised to potential subscribers in the pages of Soldier of Fortune. See, for instance, ‘Confirm Your Worst Suspicions About Liberal Media Bias’, SOF, September 1977, 79.

⁴⁵ James Burnham, ‘Why Rhodesia?’, National Review, 19 August 1977, 935, italics in original.

⁴⁶ Moore, Rhodesia, 193–4; White, Fighting and Writing, 183; Hitchens, ‘High Camp in Rhodesia’, 292–3; ‘Crippled Eagle Club … ’, SOF, March 1978, 18; ‘SOF Interviews Robin Moore’, 58–9, 77–8. Kathleen Belew argues that similar currents of post-Vietnam disillusionment energised the nascent white power movement in the United States. See Belew, Bring the War Home, 19–32.

⁴⁷ Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 236–7.

⁴⁸ Stan Hannan, e-mail message to author, 18 January 2022; Stan Hannan, e-mail message to author, 19 January 2022; Stan Hannan, e-mail message to author, 20 January 2022. For the film’s connection to Operation Springboard, see the film’s description in ‘Stan Hannan Rhodesia Unafraid Collection,’ University of Georgia Special Collecions Libraries [accessed 21 January 2022 at https://sclfind.libs.uga.edu/sclfind/view?docId=ead/RBRL232SHR.xml].

⁴⁹ As of December 2023, these blog posts remain accessible at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com.

⁵⁰ Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘Honeymooning in a War Zone’, Confessions of a Wandering Jew [hereafter CWJ], 24 March 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/03/honeymooning-in-war-zone.html].

⁵¹ Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘Fit or Fat?’, CWJ, 26 March 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/03/25-fit-or-fat.html].

⁵² Ibid.

⁵³ Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘Stand at Attention When You Talk to ME!’, CWJ, 20 April 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/04/stand-at-attention-when-you-talk-to-me.html]; Stan Hannan, e-mail message to author, 18 January 2022; Stan Hannan, e-mail message to author, 19 January 2022; Stan Hannan, A Chaplain’s Story (1976), archived by Russell Library for Political Research and Studies, University of Georgia [accessed on 18 April 2022 at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A0sQ4FAFRAc]).

⁵⁴ Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘Paranoia Strikes Deep’, CWJ, 7 May 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/05/paranoia-strikes-deep.html].

⁵⁵ Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘The Interview’, CWJ, 13 April 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/04/interview.html]; Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘The Interview – Part 2’, CWJ, 13 April 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/04/interview-part-2.html]; de Borchgrave, ‘Smith’s Yankee Recruits’; Moore, Rhodesia, 231–38. The Newsweek article is curiously attributed to Belgian-American journalist Arnaud de Borchgrave, but it draws directly from Moore’s interviews with Wasserman, and Moore repeats many of the quotes from the Newsweek article in his chapter on Wasserman in Rhodesia.

⁵⁶ De Borchgrave, ‘Smith’s Yankee Recruits’.

⁵⁷ Wasserman, ‘The Interview – Part 2’.

⁵⁸ Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘Another Colonel in the Church’, CWJ, 17 April 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/04/another-colonel-in-church.html].

⁵⁹ Marc Howard, ‘Black Soldiers in the Rhodesian Army, 1956-1981: The Loyalties of Professionals’ (University of Oxford: unpublished Dphil thesis, 2020), 136–43.

⁶⁰ Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘The Return of the Wondering Wanderer’, CWJ, 23 April 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/04/return-of-wondering-wanderer.html] .

⁶¹ Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘Unstable and Unreliable’, CWJ, 24 April 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/04/unstable-and-unreliable.html].

⁶² Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘Tea with the General’, CWJ, 13 May 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/05/tea-with-general.html]; Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘A Genuine “Crippled Eagle”’, CWJ, 12 May 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at https://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/05/genuine-crippled-eagle.html].

⁶³ Lobban, ‘American Mercenaries in Rhodesia’, 323; White, Fighting and Writing, 174–5; Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘The Rhodesian Light Infantry’, CWJ, 8 April 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/04/rhodesian-light-infantry.html].

⁶⁴ ‘The Land of Opportunity – Maybe’, TIME, 24 October 1977, 56.

⁶⁵ Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘Tell Them to Go!’, CWJ, 22 May 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/05/tell-them-to-go.html].

⁶⁶ Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘The Rebel I Loved and Lost’, CWJ, 26 May 2009 [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/05/rebel-i-loved-and-lost.html]. Wasserman dated their departure to the time of the Internal Settlement on 03 March 1978. See Jeffrey Wasserman, ‘Finding Out for Myself’, CWJ, 1 June 2009, [accessed on 14 July 2021 at http://confessionsofawanderingjew.blogspot.com/2009/06/finding-out-for-myself.html].

⁶⁷ Stan Hannan, Rhodesia Unafraid (1978) [accessed on 16 April 2022 at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYL6aTK3k6Y]; Benjamin J. Young, ‘“Our Missionaries are Not Revolutionaries”: Race, Southern Baptists, and the Protestant Far Right in the Rhodesian Bush War, 1965-1980’, Baptist History & Heritage 56:2 (2021), 83; Whitaker, ‘Fear and Money’, 76.

⁶⁸ Hannan, Rhodesia Unafraid. Slimp, an ordained minister in the conservative Presbyterian Church in America, would return to the United States after Rhodesia’s collapse and become an outspoken voice in the Council of Conservative Citizens, an avowedly white nationalist organisation. See Robert L. Slimp, ‘The Frontline Fellowship’, The Counsel of Chalcedon, March 1989, 28–9, 41; Robert Slimp, ‘The Betrayal of South Africa’, Citizens Informer, March 2007; Stan Hannan, e-mail message with author, 19 January 2022.

⁶⁹ Hannan, Rhodesia Unafraid.

⁷⁰ Scarnecchia, Race and Diplomacy, 138–52; Caute, Under the Skin, 173; Wasserman, ‘Finding Out for Myself.’

⁷¹ White, Unpopular Sovereignty, 213; Moorcraft and McLaughlin, The Rhodesian War, 151.

⁷² Mitchell, ‘Tropes of the Cold War’, 264–8, 274–75; DeRoche, Black, White, and Chrome, 260–3.

⁷³ Michael McHugh, interview by author, 22 February 2022; Sandra Salmans and Bill Belleville, ‘New Vietnam’, Newsweek, 8 September 1975, 21–2; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 99.

⁷⁴ ‘Church to Send 27 Volunteers’, Spokane Chronicle, 28 June 1978, 9; Calvin Lindstrom and Michael McHugh, interview by author, 22 February 2022; Ed Lion, ‘This Reverend Makes Reagan Look Liberal’, Napa Valley Register, 10 November 1978, 9.

⁷⁵ Caute, Under the Skin, 257; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 98–9; Moorcraft and McLaughlin, The Rhodesian War, 122; Lindstrom and McHugh, interview.

⁷⁶ ‘An Aggressive Faith’, Christianity Today, 20 October 1978, 61; McHugh, interview. ‘Church to Send 27 Volunteers’; ‘Former Green Beret Hired to Aid Missions in Rhodesia’, Washington Post, 17 September 1978; Caute, Under the Skin, 257; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 98–9.

⁷⁷ ‘Green Beret’s Project Assailed’, Religious News Service, 21 September 1978, Baptist Joint Committee records, Accession #3193, Box 234, Folder 8, The Texas Collection, Baylor University.

⁷⁸ ‘An Aggressive Faith’, 61; McHugh, interview; ‘Yank Plans Armed Force in Rhodesia’, Chicago Tribune, 16 September 1978, 5.

⁷⁹ ‘An Aggressive Faith’, 61.

⁸⁰ Cong. Rec., 95^th Cong., 2nd sess., (1978), vol. 124, pt. 14: 19015-8; Cong. Rec., 95^th Cong., 2nd sess., (1978), vol. 124, pt. 15: 19211–24; Caute, Under the Skin, 282–3.

⁸¹ Ian Smith, The Great Betrayal: The Memoirs of Ian Douglas Smith (London: Ian Blake Publishing, 1997), 269–74; Graham Hovey, ‘Invitation to Smith of Rhodesia Is a Tricky Issue for U.S.’, The New York Times, 17 July 1978; ‘Smith, 3 Black Rhodesian Leaders to Attend Missionary Parley in U.S.’, Washington Post, 18 July 1978; Paul Lindstrom and John Battell, ‘Missionaries Massacred!’, The Christian Militant, November 1978, Pamphlet Collection, 95-789 Oversize, Wisconsin Historical Society Library, Madison, WI; McHugh, interview.

⁸² Smith, The Great Betrayal, 275–6.

⁸³ McHugh, interview; ‘Private Army of Mr Pace’, Sydney Morning Herald, 16 September 1978.

⁸⁴ Film from a Reuters crew remains digitally preserved. See Rhodesia: Vietnam War Veteran Arrives in Salisbury with Plan for Volunteer Force Protection for Missionaries (1978) [accessed on 12 July 2021 at https://www.britishpathe.com/video/VLVA5CQ9D640OSICYVEIPXEKVOEJ2-RHODESIA-VIETNAM-WAR-VETERAN-ARRIVES-IN-SALISBURY-WITH-PLAN-FOR/query/FIVE] .

⁸⁵ ‘Missionaries Massacred!’; ‘Private Army of Mr Pace’; ‘Former Green Beret Hired to Aid Missions in Rhodesia’; ‘Guerrilla War Thwarts Mission’, The Pantagraph (Bloomington, IL), 20 November 1978); ‘Church Says No to Rhodesia’, The Times (Streator, IL), 8 November 1978; ‘Pace Activities Quest Reported’, Sunday Mail (Salisbury), 19 November 1978; Michael McHugh, interview.

⁸⁶ Moorcraft, A Short Thousand Years, 119.

⁸⁷ ‘Rhodesia … ’, SOF, September 1978, 14; Alexander Lee, ‘Conservatives Divided: Defending Rhodesia Against Malcolm Fraser 1976-1978’, Australian Journal of Politics and History 66:3 (2020), 514–7.

⁸⁸ Background Briefing: Terrorists, Missionaries, and the West (Salisbury: Rhodesian Information Office, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1977); James J. Kirkpatrick, ‘Carter and Rhodesian Info Office’, Human Events, 25 June 1977, 9; ‘Footnote on Rhodesia’, Washington Post, 20 July 1977, A22; Arthur Gavshon, ‘The Twilight Diplomats’, Washington Post, 27 July 1977, B12; Brownell, Struggles for Self-Determination, 207–9.

⁸⁹ ‘Conservative Caucus Support Letter Draft’, n.d., Digital Collections, Jerry Falwell Library, Liberty University [accessed on 7 February 2021 at https://cdm17184.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p17184coll12/id/1537/rec/1].

⁹⁰ Howard Phillips, ‘Letter to Mr. and Mrs. Fred Kramer’, 19 October 1978, 2–3, Digital Collections, Jerry Falwell Library, Liberty University [accessed on 7 February 2021 at https://cdm17184.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p17184coll12/id/9477].

⁹¹ Ibid., 3.

⁹² Bob Dole to Howard Phillips, 20 December 1978, Digital Collections, Jerry Falwell Library, Liberty University [accessed on 7 February 2021 at https://cdm17184.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p17184coll12/id/8538/rec/1].

⁹³ Moore, Rhodesia, 24, 57.

⁹⁴ Ibid., 54.

⁹⁵ Ibid., 5.

⁹⁶ Ed McAteer, ‘Travels with Ed’, 1979, Digital Collections, Jerry Falwell Library, Liberty University [accessed on 12 February 2021 at https://liberty.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p17184coll12/id/1609/rec/2]; Old Time Gospel Hour sermon transcript, 28 January 1979, Digital Collections, Jerry Falwell Library, Liberty University [accessed on 8 March 2022 at https://cdm17184.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p17184coll9/id/2305/rec/10].

⁹⁷ DeRoche, Black, White, and Chrome, 269–74; Caute, Under the Skin, 332.

⁹⁸ Norman Wood, interview by Elizabeth Baruch, 13 March 1979, 1, Baptist Joint Committee records, Accession #3193, Box 234, Folder 9, The Texas Collection, Baylor University; Caute, Under the Skin, 332. Carter was in Jerusalem at the time of Wood’s visit. See ‘The Daily Diary of President Jimmy Carter’, 11 March 1979, Jimmy Carter Library & Museum [accessed on 30 June 2022 at https://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/assets/documents/diary/1979/d031179t.pdf].

⁹⁹ Wood, interview by Baruch, 7.

¹⁰⁰ Mitchell, ‘Tropes of the Cold War’, 274; DeRoche, Black, White, and Chrome, 279–81; Caute, Under the Skin, 315–6.

¹⁰¹ Peter Brimelow, ‘Ian Smith’s Rhodesia Is Worth Remembering’, Human Events, 26 May 1979, 8.

¹⁰² Ibid. After a career at National Review and Forbes, Brimelow became founding editor of the white nationalist website VDARE in 1999.

¹⁰³ Al J. Venter, ‘Rhodesia’s Tragic Terrorist War – The End Is Near’, SOF, June 1979, 39.

¹⁰⁴ Ibid., 42. This list of topics is sampled from the next issue of Soldier of Fortune; see ‘Table of Contents’, SOF, July 1979, 4.

¹⁰⁵ ‘Zimbabwe-Rhodesia Battling Communists’, Journal-Champion, 13 July 1979, 7.

¹⁰⁶ William K. Diehl, ‘Falwell Visits Rhodesia Massacre Site’, Journal-Champion, 23 November 1979, 1, 8; Stan Hannan, e-mail message with author, 19 January 2022.

¹⁰⁷ William Reed, ‘Washington for Jesus’, February 1980, William Standish Reed, M.D., Collection, Regent University Library Digital Collections [accessed on 8 March 2021 at http://digitallibrary.regent.edu/archives/CMFI-Newsletters/1975-1986/1980_0200_CMFI%20Newsletter.pdf], digital copy in possession of author.

¹⁰⁸ Wasserman, ‘The Rebel I Loved and Lost’; Stan Hannan, e-mail message to author, 20 January 2022; Lindstrom and McHugh, interview.

¹⁰⁹ Steve Askin, ‘Mission to Renamo: The Militarization of the Religious Right’, Issue: A Journal of Opinion 18:2 (Summer 1990), 29–38; Paul Gifford, The New Crusaders: Christianity and the New Right in Southern Africa (London: Pluto Press, 1991).

¹¹⁰ McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders, 135–7; Dell’Omo, ‘Infernal Handiwork’.

¹¹¹ Belew, Bring the War Home.

¹¹² Frances Robles, Jason Horowitz, and Shaila Dewan, ‘Dylann Roof, Suspect in Charleston Shooting, Flew the Flags of White Power’, The New York Times, 18 June 2015; John Ismay, ‘Rhodesia’s Dead – but White Supremacists Have Given It New Life Online’, The New York Times Magazine, 10 April 2018.