![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
Can natural resources facilitate regional cooperation? Recent discoveries of natural gas in the Eastern Mediterranean have led many to ask whether natural resources can bring peace and prosperity to the region. This article draws upon the contrast between liberal and realist perspectives on interdependence to explicate the extent to which shared economic interests can facilitate political cooperation in a conflict-ridden region. The analysis of Turkey’s Eastern Mediterranean strategy corroborates the proposition that when states prioritize security over prosperity, they will likely continue to escalate political tensions even if this jeopardizes economic gains from cooperation.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Tolga Demiryol is an associate professor of political science at Altınbaş University in Istanbul and a Fung Global Fellow at Princeton Institute for International and Regional Studies. Demiryol received his Ph.D. in politics from the University of Virginia. His areas of research include international security, geopolitics of energy and Turkish foreign policy.
Notes
1. Grigoriadis, “Energy Discoveries”; Gürel and Le Cornu, “Turkey and the Eastern Mediterranean”; Iseri and Andrikopoulos, “Energy Geopolitics”; Khadduri, “East Mediterranean Gas”; and Pericleous, “Cyprus.”
2. The White House, “Remarks by Vice President.”
3. “Protest as Turkey Drills for Oil in Northern Cyprus.” BBC News, April 26, 2012. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17852182.
4. Wilson, “Turks, Cypriots,” 105.
5. Atlantic Council, “Prepared Remarks by Victoria Nuland.”
6. Mansfield and Pollins, “The Study of Interdependence,” 835–7. For a comprehensive review of the literature, see Mansfield and Pollins, Economic Interdependence and International Conflict.
7. Gartzke, Li, and Boehmer, “Investing in the Peace,” 393–6.
8. Kroll, “The Complexity of Interdependence,” 322–4, and Copeland, “Economic Interdependence and War.”
9. Tekin and Williams, “Europe’s External Energy Policy,” 12–14, and Müftüler-Baç and Başkan, “The Future of Energy Security,” 375.
10. Ali, “Energizing Peace,” 7–8.
11. Omonbude, Cross-Border Oil and Gas.
12. Keohane and Nye, “Power and Interdependence.”
13. Stern, “Gas Pipeline Co-Operation.”
14. Hill, “Pipelines in the Caspian,” 18–19. Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia, however, proved an insurmountable barrier to bilateral energy cooperation.
15. Dargin, “The Dolphin Project.”
16. Ali, “Energizing Peace,” 12.
17. “‘Iran-Pakistan Gas Pipeline Project Is a Lifeline for Pakistan’s Economy,’ Dr Gulfaraz Ahmed, Energy Expert.” Business Recorder, June 28, 2013. https://fp.brecorder.com/2013/06/201306281204543/; and Kramer, “Afghanistan Breaks Ground.”
18. Shaffer, Energy Politics, 172.
19. Stevens, Transit Troubles, 14–18.
20. Shaffer, “Can New Energy Supplies,” 3.
21. Kupchan, How Enemies Become Friends, 3.
22. Waltz, “The Myth of National,” 143.
23. Hirschman, National Power.
24. Gereben, “Russia’s Energy Weapon,” and Stegen, “Deconstructing the ‘Energy Weapon’.”
25. Stulberg, “Strategic Bargaining,” 816.
26. Shaffer, “Natural Gas Supply Stability,” 115.
27. Mearsheimer, “Disorder Restored,” 222.
28. US Geological Survey, “Assessment of Undiscovered Oil.”
29. “93 Per Cent of Jordan’s Electricity Generated by Natural Gas.” Jordan Times, May 5, 2018. http://www.jordantimes.com/news/local/93-cent-jordan%E2%80%99s-electricity-generated-natural-gas.
30. “Israel Consortium Signs ‘Historic’ 15-Year, $10b Gas Deal with Jordan.” Times of Israel, September 26, 2016. http://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-consortium-signs-15-year-10b-gas-deal-with-jordan/.
31. Ratcliffe, “Israel-Gaza Gas Pipeline.”
32. BP, “BP Statistical Review.”
33. The estimated cost of the Vasilikos plant is $12.6 billion. Carlson, “Pivoting Energy Relations,” 71.
34. “Eni/Total Find Natgas off Cyprus in Field Close to Zohr.” Reuters, February 8, 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cyprus-natgas/cyprus-says-extensive-strain-of-natgas-found-in-formation-similar-to-zohr-idUSKBN1FS1G3.
35. “Leviathan and Aphrodite Gas to Fuel ELNG at Idku.” OGInsights, March 17, 2018. http://oginsights.blogspot.com/2018/03/leviathan-and-aphrodite-gas-to-fuel.html.
36. “Cyprus-Egypt Gas Pipeline to Cost $800 Million-$1 Billion.” Reuters, May 7, 2018. https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-egypt-energy-cyprus/cyprus-egypt-gas-pipeline-to-cost-800-million-1-billion-idUKKBN1I8182.
37. “Gas Pipeline to Egypt a Done Deal but There Is a Snag.” Financial Mirror, August 7, 2018. http://www.financialmirror.com/news-details.php?nid=35714.
38. “Israel-Cyprus gas dispute goes to int’l arbitration.” Globes, May 1, 2018. https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-israel-cyprus-gas-dispute-goes-to-intl-arbitration-1001233992.
39. Bryza, “Eastern Mediterranean Natural Gas,” 39.
40. “Eastmed.” IGI Poseidon, February 2, 2016. http://www.igi-poseidon.com/en/eastmed.
41. Winrow, “The Anatomy,” 437.
42. Tagliapietra, “Is the EastMed Gas?”
43. “Israel, Cyprus, and Greece Push East Med Gas Pipeline to Europe.” Times of Israel, May 8, 2018. https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-cyprus-and-greece-push-east-med-gas-pipeline-to-europe/.
44. “Gas Future Hinges on Regional Cooperation, and Cyprus Solution.” Cyprus Mail, September 10, 2016. http://cyprus-mail.com/2016/09/10/gas-future-hinges-regional-cooperation-cyprus-solution/.
45. Stocker, “No EEZ Solution”; and Eissler and Arasıl, “Maritime Boundary Delimitation.”
46. Başeren, “Cyprus Hydrocarbon Dispute,” 37.
47. Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “30 January 2007 Press”; and MGK Basın Bildirisi, “20 Haziran 2007.”
48. Gürel and Le Cornu, “Can Gas Catalyse,” 15.
49. “Spokesman Drilling Cyprus Talks.” Cyprus News Agency, October 5, 2011. http://www.hri.org/news/cyprus/cna/2011/11-10-05_1.cna.html.
50. Gürel and Le Cornu, “Can Gas Catalyse Peace?” 71.
51. As noted earlier, at 120bcm Aphrodite field is not large enough to be globally significant. However, it is important because it is a major asset for the Cypriot economy. The discovery of Aphrodite gas also reinforced hopes that larger reserves might be found in adjacent blocks.
52. Özertem, “Turkish Foreign Policy,” 366.
53. “Protest as Turkey Drills for Oil in Northern Cyprus.” BBC News, April 26, 2012. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17852182.
54. “Cyprus Slams Turkey over Second NAVTEX.” Offshore Energy Today, January 8, 2015. http://www.offshoreenergytoday.com/cyprus-slams-turkey-over-second-navtex/.
55. Kambas, “Cyprus Says Turkish Vessel.”
56. European Council, “European Council.”
57. “Erdoğan Dünya Petrol Kongresi’nde Konuştu.” [Erdoğan spoke at World Petroleum Congress.] NTV, July 10, 2017. https://www.ntv.com.tr/ekonomi/erdogan-dunya-petrol-kongresinde-konustu,FarqY66Id0iT62RSKqtdlw.
58. Michalopoulos, “Greece-Turkey Tensions Mount.”
59. Hazou, “Turkey Ups the Ante.”
60. Gürcan, “Tempers Flare over Gas.”
61. Alterman and Malka, “Shifting Eastern Mediterranean Geometry,” For an overview of geopolitical shifts in the Mediterranean, see; Karagiannis, “Shifting Eastern Mediterranean Alliances”; and Nopens, “Geopolitical Shifts.”
62. Stavris, “The New Energy Triangle,” 87.
63. “Egyptian Firm to Buy $15 Billion of Israeli Natural Gas.” Reuters, February 19, 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-egypt-natgas/egyptian-firm-to-buy-15-billion-of-israeli-natural-gas-idUSKCN1G31BK.
64. Tziarras, “Israel-Cyprus-Greece,” 411.
65. Nastos, “Greek-Israeli-Cyprus.”
66. “Israel and Cyprus Sign Defense Agreements.” Israel Defense, January 10, 2012. http://www.israeldefense.co.il/en/content/israel-and-cyprus-sign-defense-agreements.
67. Tziarras, “Israel-Cyprus-Greece,” 417.
68. Tanchum, “Turkey’s New Carrier,” 8.
69. Tanchum, “A New Equilibrium,” 10.
70. “How Gas Could Warm Relations between Israel and Turkey.” Reuters, June 21, 2016. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-turkey-gas-insight/how-gas-could-warm-relations-between-israel-and-turkey-idUSKCN0Z60WJ.
71. Kershner, “Iran Deal Denounced.”
72. Peker, “Turkey Hails Iran.”
73. Pamuk, “Turkey’s Erdogan Says.”
74. Karagoz, “Israeli-Turkish Rapprochement Crucial.”
75. Arbell, “Tensions over Jerusalem.”
76. Reed, “Israel Signs Pipeline Deal.”