![Sample our Area Studies journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5922/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Area-Studies.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
This article analyzes the transformation of the political position of the Ottoman Armenian community by focusing on the community’s reactions vis-à-vis a major turning point in modern Turkish history: the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey. The article demonstrates how and why the Ottoman Armenian community reacted as it did when the status of the state as a Republic was proclaimed by the Grand National Assembly in October 1923. The major argument the article puts forward is that following the results of the Turkish-Armenian War in the Caucasus, the Greco-Turkish War in Western Anatolia, and the retreat of the French from the Cilicia region, the majority of the Ottoman Armenian community which remained within the borders of ‘New Turkey’ shifted its political position to accommodate the policies of the ruling power in order to protect their physical and cultural existence during this period of political turmoil. Benefiting from primary sources, including Ottoman Armenian and Ottoman Turkish newspapers, archival documents, and parliamentary minutes, this article focuses on the position of Ottoman Armenians following the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey, and thus contributes to the historiography on the Armistice period.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Ari Şekeryan received his DPhil from the University of Oxford, Faculty of Oriental Studies. His thesis, ‘The Armenians in the Ottoman Empire After the First World War (1918–1923),’ sought to bridge the disciplines of history, political science, and area studies by analysing the minority-majority relations in the final years of the Ottoman Empire, primarily focusing on the relations between the Armenians and Turks. His research was grounded in detailed archival research conducted at the library of the Armenian Mekhitarist Congregation in Vienna, Austria; the Prime Minister’s Ottoman Archives in Istanbul, Turkey; and the State Archives and the National Library of Yerevan, Armenia. Dr. Şekeryan’s main research interests include the theories of minority-majority relations and the Muslim-non Muslim relations in the Ottoman Empire. He edited The Adana Massacre 1909: Three Reports and An Anthology of Armenian Literature 1913. His latest articles appeared in the British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, The Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association, and War in History. His research has been supported by the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. He is currently an Honorary Fellow at the Institute for Research in the Humanities at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
Notes
1 Dyer, “The Turkish Armistice of 1918: 1,” 143–78; Dyer, “The Turkish Armistice of 1918: 2,” 313–48; Lybyer, “Turkey under the Armistice,” 447–73; and Zürcher, “The Ottoman Empire,” 266–76.
2 “Փախչող Փաշաները [Escaped Paşas],” Zhamanag [The Times] (November 4, 1918), no. 3344; “Հետաքրքրական Մանրամասնութիւններ Երեք Փաշաներու Փախուստին Շուրջ [Interesting Details on the Escape of Three Paşas],” Verchin Lur [The Latest News] (November 4, 1918), no. 1334; Tuğlacı, Tarih Boyunca, 722; and Zürcher, The Unionist Factor, 72.
3 For analysis of the Allied occupation of Istanbul, see Criss, Istanbul under Allied Occupation.
4 I name the Greek Orthodox communities of Western Anatolia, Central Anatolia, the Black Sea and Istanbul as the greater Romioi (Rum) community, who were subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
5 “Այսօրուան խանդավառութիւնը [Today’s Enthusiasm],” Verchin Lur (November 1, 1918), no. 1407.
6 “Աններելի Սխալներ [Unforgivable Mistakes],” Tashink‘ [The Pact] (December 29, 1918), no. 1829; “Աններելի Սխալներ [Unforgivable Mistakes],” Tashink‘ (January 1, 1919), no. 1831; “Չօրլուի Հայութիւնը [Armenians of Çorlu],” Zhamanag (November 30, 1918), no. 3370; “Թէ Ի՞նչ Կ՚ուզենք Եղեր [So What Do We Want?],” Nor Gyank‘ (December 4, 1918), no. 47; “Իրարու Վրայ Կը Նետեն Հայկական Ջարդը Եւ Գերմանիա [They Blame Each Other for the Armenian Massacres and Germany],” Zhoghovurt (November 7, 1918), no.15.
7 For articles criticizing the CUP, see “Bilinmesi Lazım Bir Hakikat [A Truth that Needs to be Known],” Alemdar [The Flag-bearer] (June 10, 1919); “Firariler ve Akıbetleri [Deserters and their Fate],” Türkçe İstanbul [Turkish Istanbul] (December 8, 1918); “Çetenin Marifetleri [The Cunningness of the Band],” Türkçe İstanbul (September 8, 1919); “İttihatçı Ruhu [The Soul of the Unionist],” Türkçe İstanbul (November 12, 1918); “İttihat ve Terakki [Union and Progess],” Türkçe İstanbul (November 13, 1918); “Ermeni Kıtalinden Kimler Sorumludur? [Who is Responsible for the Armenian Massacres?],” Peyam [The News] (September 10, 1919); “Ittihat ve Terakki ve Turan Fikri [Union and Progress and the Idea of Turan],” Peyam (September 15, 1919).
8 Zürcher, The Unionist Factor, 86–8, and Gingeras, Sorrowful Shores, 98–115.
9 See Yetim, “Milli Mücadele,” 60–75; Alemdar (May 24, 1919), no: 152; Erzurum, “The Greek Occupation of Izmir,” 50–51; Erzurum, “The Greek Occupation of Izmir,” 58–195; and Eldem, “L’Illustration’dan Seçmeler.”
10 While there is extensive literature on the emergence and development of the Turkish National movement, it is primarily in Turkish; below is a selection of the available literature on the subject in English. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History; Zürcher, The Unionist Factor; Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey; Shaw, From Empire to Republic, 2; Akşin, Turkey from Empire; and Smith, Turkey.
11 On 20 October 1921, the negotiations between the Nationalist authorities and Henry Franklin-Bouillon, the representative of the French government, came to an end, with the French government agreeing to withdraw from the region. The Ottoman Armenians accused the French administration of betraying the Armenian nation. For the Franco-Turkish agreement, see Bağcı, “An Analysis of Inter-Communal Conflicts,” 110; Öke, The Armenian Question, 196; Gürün, The Armenian File, 286–7. For the Armenian community’s perspective regarding the French withdrawal from the region, see “Ֆրանքօ-Քէմալական Համաձայնութիւնն Ու Կիլիկեցիք [Franco-Nationalist Agreement and the Cilicians],” Arevelyan Mamul [Oriental Press] (December 11, 1921), no. 2729; “Ատանան Թուրքերուն Ձեռք [Adana in the Hands of Turks],” Verchin Lur (November 28, 1921), no. 2346; “Ֆրանսա Կը Ծախէ Կիլիկիոյ Հայութիւնը Մուսթաֆա Քէմալի [France Sells the Armenians of Cilicia to Mustafa Kemal],” Arevelyan Mamul (November 11, 1921), no. 2703. For the history of the Greco-Turkish War, see Abbott, Greece and the Allies; Smith, Ionian Vision; Goldstein, “Great Britain and Greater Greece 1917–1920,” 339–56; Daleziou, “Britain and the Greek-Turkish War.”
12 For the pro-Allied approach of the Armenian community during the Armistice years, see Şekeryan, “The Armenians in the Ottoman Empire”; Şekeryan, “Reactions of the Armenian Community”; Şekeryan, “Romioi-Armenian Friendship”; and Şekeryan, “Rethinking the Turkish-Armenian War.”
13 While the academic literature on the Armenian community during the Armistice and Early Republican years is not rich, substantial new works have been produced in recent years; see Ekmekçioğlu, Recovering Armenia; Ekmekçioğlu, “Republic of Paradox,” 665; Ekmekçioğlu, “Kalanlar”; Suciyan, The Armenians in Modern Turkey; Miroğlu, “Ստամբուլի Հայ Համայնքը (1923–1939)”; and Malhasyan, “İstanbul’da 1922 Yılında.”
14 For the ethnic bargaining theory, see Jenne, Ethnic Bargaining, 53; Jenne, “Separatism as a Bargaining Posture”; Jenne, “A Bargaining Theory”; Reiter, “Exploring the Bargaining Model of War,” 27–43; and Cetinyan, “Ethnic Bargaining,” 645–77.
15 Jenne, Ethnic Bargaining, 53.
16 Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert,” 84–5.
17 Ibid., 93.
18 The Federation of Armenian Revolutionaries was founded in the summer of 1890 in Tiflis and was renamed a year later as the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF). The main objective of the ARF was the liberation of Ottoman Armenia. The ARF was the major party among Ottoman Armenians and an ally of the CUP until the beginning of the First World War. For the history of the ARF, see Avagyan and Minassian, Ermeniler ve Ittihat ve Terakki; Panossian, The Armenians from Kings, 205–10, and Nalbandian, The Armenian Revolutionary Movement.
19 Koptaş, “Zohrab,Papazyan ve Pastermadjian.”
20 Türkyılmaz, “Devrim İçinde Devrim.”
21 See Ekmekçioğlu, “Kalanlar”; Ekmekçioğlu, “Mecbur”; and Malhasyan, İstanbul’da 1922 Yılında.
22 As reported in “Türkler ve Ermeniler [Turks and Armenians],” İkdam (December 17, 1922), no. 9250. “Ermeniler son kırk sene zarfında Avrupa diplomasisinin kurbanı olmuşlardır. Rus-Türk Harbi’nden sonra Rusya Ermenileri Türklerin aleyhine tahrik etmiş ve neticesi Ermeniler için gayet felaketli olmuştur. Harb-ı Umumi esnasında ve badelharb İngiliz ve Amerika politikacıları Ermeniler vasıtasıyla Türklere gaile çıkarmak için ellerinden geleni yapmışlardır. Asırlardan beri Türklerle iyi geçinmiş olan biçare Ermeni milletinin kendi aralarında yetişen bir takım avareser müfritlerin siyasi nutuklara fazla ehemmiyet vermeleri ve politikacıların ellerinde alet olmaları yüzünden ne müdhiş ızdırabata duçar olduğunu ve nasıl yarı yarıya kırıldığını burada teşrih etmek pek uzun olur.”
23 Bey was formerly used in the Ottoman language as a title of respect.
24 “Türk Ermeni Cemiyeti [The Turkish-Armenian Association],” İkdam (March 31, 1923), no. 9354.
25 “Թուրքեւհայ Բարձրացման Միութեան Թեյասեղանը [The Tea Event of the Turkish-Armenian Ascent Association],” Jagadamard (March, 31 1923), no: 1336. ‘Վստահ եմ թէ ամէնքդ ալ պիտի գնահատէք այն ջանքերը, զորս կը թափէ մեր միութիւնը փարատելու համար դարերէ ի վեր Թուրքիոյ մէջ ապրող երկու եղբայր ազգերու միջեւ վերջերս յառաջ եկած թիւրիմացութիւնն ու ցրտութիւնը։ Արդարեւ, երկու եղբայրներէն մէկը ձեւով մը սխալ ճամբու մը մէջ դրուելով քաղաքականութենէ տարուեցաւ եւ իր մեծ եղբայրն ու պաշտպանը նեղացնելով մեծ դժուարութիւնների ենթարկուեցաւ։ Ասոր համար ան ամբողջովին հասկնալով իր սխալը կը փափաքի գրկախառնուիլ իր մեծ եղբորը հետ։’
26 “Թուրքեւհայ Բարձրացման Միութեան Թեյասեղանը [The Tea Event of the Turkish-Armenian Ascent Association],” Jagadamard (March 31, 1923), no. 1336. ‘ … Թուրքերն ու Հայերը միս եւ եղունգի նման երկու ազգեր էին, սակայն կարգ մը ցաւալի դէպքեր անոնց միջեւ ցրտութիւն առաջ բերին։ Բոլոր Հայերը կը փափաքին անհետացնել այս ցրտութիւնը, կը հուսանք թէ Թուրքերն ալ նոյն փափաքը ունին, որովհետեւ անոնք մեր մեծ եղբայրներն են։ Միայն թէ միմիայն այս Միութեան ջանքերը բաւական չեն։ Մամուլն ալ պէտք է օժանդակէ այս գործին։ Կեցցէ՛ Թուրքիա, կեցցէ՛ Թուրք ազնիւ ազգը, կեցցէ՛ Հայրենիքը՛, կեցցե՛ն այս հայրենիքի հարազատ զաւակները։’
27 Jenne, Ethnic Bargaining, 53.
28 Lerna Ekmekçioğlu also highlights that some Ottoman Armenians lost faith in any European power’s sincerity in helping them. They tried to distance themselves from diaspora Armenians and to show themselves as pro-Turkish in order to protect their physical existence. See Ekmekçioğlu, Recovering Armenia, 91–110.
29 Moranian, The American Missionaries, 351–52.
30 “Ermeni Patrik Vekili Yeni Konferansta Hiçbir Teşebbüslerinin Olmadığını Söylüyor [The Patriarchal Locum Tenens Says They Do Not Have Any Initiatives at the New Conference],” İkdam (April 26, 1923), no. 9379.
31 “Ermenilerin de İsmet Paşa’ya Bir Suikast Hazırladıkları Tahakkuk Etti [It is Proven that the Armenians Prepared an Assassination Plan for İsmet Paşa],” Tevhid-i Ekfar (May 12, 1923), no. 3760.
32 “Akbaba’nın Notası [Akbaba’s Note],” Akbaba (May 17, 1923), no. 47.
“İsmet Paşa’nın kaşı, yüz bin Ermeni başı, sonra şunu bilin ki, para etmez göz yaşı. İsmet Paşa gökte ay, kendine gel baron Hay!, biriniz yan bakarsa, topunuza çıkar pay. Size ihtar ederim, şimdi uçar giderim, uslu durun vallahi, leşinizi diderim!”
33 Pasley, “The Collapse of British Imperialism,” 358.
34 Ekmekçioğlu, Recovering Armenia, 204–5.
35 “Ermenilerin Avdeti Meselesi [The Issue of Armenian Repatriation],” Tanin [Resonance] (June 9, 1923), no. 236.
36 Ulu, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Ermeniler, 84; 75. Yılda Türkiye Ermenileri, 3; “Ըսմէթ Փաշայի Ժամանումը [The Arrival of İsmet Paşa],” Jagadamard (August 11, 1923), no. 1444.
37 “Հայերը Եւ Ըսմէթ Փաշա [The Armenians and İsmet Paşa],” Verchin Lur (August 9, 1923), no. 2872.
38 “Ըսմէթ Փաշա Պոլսոյ Մէջ [İsmet Paşa in Istanbul],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (August 11, 1923), no. 1482. The following sentence was written on the plaque: “Mevla seni eylesun muammer ey şanlı mücahid-i muzaffer hamaset ve dehanın timsal-ı mücessimi vatan-ı mukaddesimizin münci-i muazzamı İsmet Paşa hazretlerine Türkiye Ermenilerinin takdime-i şükraniyesidir.”
“May God give you a long life, oh the glorious and victorious mujahid, the symbol of brilliance and bravery, the great liberator of our holy state, this is the everlasting gratitude given by the Armenians of Turkey to his Majesty İsmet Paşa.”
39 “Murahhaslarımıza Huduttan Istanbul’a Kadar Fevkalade Samimi ve Coşkun Tezahürat Yapıldı [Our Delegates Were Welcomed with Enthusiastic Demonstrations],” Tevhid-i Efkar (August 11, 1923), no. 3806. “ … Başka vesilelerle de arz ve izah edilmiş olduğu üzere Türkiye Ermenileri kendi mukadderatlarını Türk mukadderatına rabt etmişlerdir. Hiçbir taraftan hiçbir şey beklemezler. Daima Türklerle muhadenet-i kadime dairesinde yaşamak ve Türk vatandaşlarıyla birlikte bu vatan-ı azizin tealisine çalışmak arzusundadırlar.”
40 “Murahhaslarımıza Huduttan Istanbul’a Kadar Fevkalade Samimi ve Coşkun Tezahürat Yapıldı [Our Delegates Were Welcomed with Enthusiastic Demonstrations],” Tevhid-i Efkar (August 11, 1923), no. 3806.
41 “Ըսմէթ Փաղայի Ժամանումը [The Arrival of İsmet Paşa],” Jagadamard (August 11, 1923), no. 1444; Vatan published the lyrics of the march sang by the Armenians students when greeting İsmet Paşa in Sirkeci.
“Ey kahramanlar server / Türkün muazzam askeri / Şimşir-ı kahrın cevheri / Sensin bu asrın haydarı / Hürmet sana ey kahraman / Tarihe namın verdi şan / Evsafını zıb-ı zeman / Etmektedir halkı cihan / Senden vatan memnun bugün / Şad olmada alem bütün / Teşrifini tesid için / Halk eyliyor bayram düğün / Ey asaf-ı sahib deha / Senden vatan gördü vefa / Canlar sana olsun feda / Binler yaşa İsmet Paşa.” See “İstanbul’daki Parlak İstikbal Merasimi [The Brilliant Welcoming Ceremony in Istanbul],” Vatan (August 11, 1923), no. 133.
42 “Թուրք Եւ Հայ Բարծրացման Միութիւնը [Turkish-Armenian Ascent Association],” Jagadamard (July 24, 1923), no. 1428.
43 “Լօզանի Հաշտութիւնը [The Treaty of Lausanne],” Verchin Lur (July 13, 1923), no. 2849.
44 “Լօզանի Արդիւնքին Առջեւ [Before the Result of Lausanne],” Verchin Lur (July 23, 1923), no. 2857.
45 “Արեւելքի Խաղաղութիւնը [The Peace of East],” Verchin Lur (July 21, 1923), no. 2856.
46 “Նոր Թիւրքիան [The New Turkey],” Jagadamard (August 30, 1923), no. 1460.
47 “Հայերը Եւ Լօզանի Հաշտութիւնը [The Armenians and the Treaty of Lausanne],” Verchin Lur (July 24, 1923), no. 2858.
48 “Նոր Մանրամասնութիւններ Հայ Եւ Թուրք Միջադէպին Մասին [New Details about the Turkish-Armenian Incident],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 23, 1923), no. 1544; “Երեւանի Միջադէպը [The Yerevan Incident],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 28, 1923), no. 1549; “Երեւանի Հայերը [The Armenians of Yerevan],” Arawod (November 22, 1923), no. 109; Turkish Prime Ministry Republican Archives B.C.A 30.10.0.0/247.671.24.
49 “Ermeni Cumhuriyeti’nin Küstahlığı Sovyetlerin Eseri Teşviki Midir? [Is the Insolence of the Armenian Republic an Endeavor of the Soviets?],” Tevhid (October 22, 1923), no. 3863; “Erivan Mümessilliğimize Tecavüz Hadisesi [Break-in Incident at our Yerevan Legation],” Yenigün (October 22, 1923), no. 935–1312.
50 “Erivan Hadisesi [The Yerevan Incident],” Vakit (October 24, 1923), no. 2089.
51 “Erivan Mümessilimize Tecavüz Nasıl Oldu? [How Did the Break-in Happen to the Office of Our Representative?],” Vatan (October 23, 1923), no. 191; “Erivan’da Bir Taarruz [An Offense in Yerevan],” Vatan (October 22, 1923), no. 190; “Ermenilerin Tecavüzü [The Offense of Armenians],” Vatan (October 21, 1923), no. 189; “Ruslar Ermenistan’ı Haklı Buluyor [Russians Justify Armenians],” Tevhid-i Efkar (October 24, 1923), no. 3865.
52 “Պաթումի Թուրք Հիւպատոսին Յայտարարութիւնները [The Statements of the Turkish Consul for Batum],” Jagadamard (November 6, 1923), no. 1518.
53 “Միջադէպին Վարագոյրը [The Curtain of the Incident],” Jagadamard (November 16, 1923), no. 1527; “Երեւանի Միջադէպը [The Yerevan Incident],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (November 10, 1923), no. 1559.
54 “Հրծիգներու Ընկերութիւնը [The Committee of Arsonists],” Verchin Lur (July 16, 1923), no. 2851; “Հրծիգներու Ընկերութիւնը [The Committee of Arsonists],” Verchin Lur (July 17, 1923), no. 2852;, “Հրծիգներու Գործը [The Work of Arsonists],” Verchin Lur (July 18, 1923), no. 2853; “Հրծիգներու Պարագլուխ [The Leader of Arsonists],” Verchin Lur (July 19, 1923), no. 2854.
55 “Zabıtanın Büyük Bir Keşfi: İki Senedir İstanbul’a Musallat Müdhiş Bir Kumpanya” [A Great Discovery From the Police: A Terrifying Committee That Picked On Istanbul For the Last Two Years], Akşam (July 14, 1923), no. 1727.
56 “Հրծիգներու Քօմիթէ Մը Ծերբակալուած [An Arsonist Committee is Under Arrest],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (July 14, 1923), no. 1458.
57 “İstanbul’u Ateşe Vermek Bir Çete Tutuldu [A Band Aiming to Burn Istanbul Got Caught],” Vatan (July 14, 1923), no. 108.
58 “Հրծիգներու Միջազգային Ընկերութիւնը [The International Committee of Arsonists],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (July 15, 1923), no. 1459.
59 “Kundakçılar Hakkında Tahkikat [Investigation Regarding the Arsonists],” Tevhid-i Efkar (July 18, 1923), no. 3785.
60 “Ազգին Մի Վերագրէք [Don’t Ascribe to the Nation],” Arawod (July 16, 1923), no. 95.
61 “Հայոց Մասնակցութիւնը Թուրք Բանակին Յաղթական Դարծի Հանդէսներուն [The Participation of the Armenians to the Celebrations of the Victorious Return of the Turkish Army],” Verchin Lur (October 2, 1923), no. 2918.
62 “Հայոց Նուէրը Յաղթական Զինուորներուն [The Gift of the Armenians to the Victorious Soldiers],” Verchin Lur (October 5, 1923), no. 2921; “Ի նպաստ Անկար Զինաւորներու [For the Veterans],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 5, 1923), no. 1529; “Թուրք Յաղթական Բանակը Պոլսոյ Մէջ [The Victorious Turkish Army in Istanbul],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 6, 1923), no. 1530; “Թուրք Յաղթական Բանակին Փառաւոր Մուտքը [The Glorious Entrance of the Turkish Army],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 7, 1923), no. 1531.
63 “Ամբողջ Հայ Ազգը Կը Մասնակցի Օրուան Հանդիսութիւնները [The Whole Armenian Nation Participates in the Celebrations],” Verchin Lur (October 5, 1923), no. 2921; “Ի նպաստ Անկար Զինաւորներու [For the Veterans],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 5, 1923), no. 1529; “Թուրք Յաղթական Բանակը Պոլսոյ Մէջ [The Victorious Turkish Army in Istanbul],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 6, 1923), no. 1530; “Թուրք Յաղթական Բանակին Փառաւոր Մուտքը [The Glorious Entrance of the Turkish Army],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 7, 1923), no. 1531.
64 “Պոլսահայերը Աւելի Քան 3000 Ոսկիով Մասնակցած Են Խեղանդամ Զինուորաց Ի Նպաստ Բացուած Հանգանակութեան [The Istanbul Armenians Participated in the Donation Organized for the Veterans],” Verchin Lur (October 6, 1923), no. 2922; “Ի նպաստ Անկար Զինաւորներու [For the Veterans],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 5, 1923), no. 1529; “Թուրք Յաղթական Բանակը Պոլսոյ Մէջ [The Victorious Turkish Army in Istanbul],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 6, 1923), no. 1530; “Թուրք Յաղթական Բանակին Փառաւոր Մուտքը [The Glorious Entrance of the Turkish Army],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 7, 1923), no. 1531.
65 “Այսօրուան խանդավառութիւնը [Today’s Enthusiasm],” Verchin Lur (November 1, 1918), no. 1407.
66 “Տառերն Անգամ Մեսրոպը Կը Յարուցանեն Քառերէն [Even the Letters Resuscitate Mesrop From the Rocks],” Verchin Lur (January 4, 1919), no. 1462.
67 “Փրկենք Հայ Անկախութեան Ռահվիրաները [Let’s Save the Pioneers of Armenian Independence],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (February 12, 1919), no. 22–101.
68 See Şekeryan, “Rethinking the Turkish-Armenian War.”
69 “Հանրապետական Թուրքիան [The Turkish Republic],” Jagadamard (November 4, 1923), no.1517.
70 “Ոչ Թէ Անցեալը Այլ Դէպի Ապագան [Not the Past but the Future],” Arawod (March 3, 1924), no. 129.
71 “Թուրքիոյ Հանրապետութիւնը [The Republic of Turkey],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (October 31, 1923), no. 1551.
72 “Թուրքիոյ Հանրապետութիւնը [The Republic of Turkey],” Verchin Lur (November 3, 1923), no. 2946.
73 “Հանրապետութեան Հռչակումը Եւ Կեսարիոյ Հայերը [The Proclamation of the Republic and the Armenians of Kayseri],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (November 8, 1923), no. 1557.
74 “Թէ Ի՞նչ Կ՚ըսէ Տօքթ. Րէֆիգ Պէյ Հայոց Մասին [What Dr. Refik Bey Says About the Armenians],” Verchin Lur (July 20, 1923), no. 2855.
75 TBMM Gizli Celse Zabıtları, [Records of the Secret Meetings of the Turkish Parliament], December 25, 1922.
76 TBMM Gizli Celse Zabıtları, [Records of the Secret Meetings of the Turkish Parliament], March 2, 1923.
77 TBMM Gizli Celse Zabıtları, [Records of the Secret Meetings of the Turkish Parliament], September 27, 1922.
78 TBMM Gizli Celse Zabıtları, [Records of the Secret Meetings of the Turkish Parliament], December 16, 1922.
79 TBMM Gizli Celse Zabıtları, [Records of the Secret Meetings of the Turkish Parliament], April 20, 1924.
80 “ԹԷ Հայերը Քանի՞ Անգամ Խաբուած Են Օտարներէն [How Many Times Were the Armenians Persuaded by Foreigners?],” Verchin Lur (August 17, 1923), no. 2879.
81 “Թելադրութիւն Մը Մեր Վաճառականներուն Թուրգեւհայ Յարաբերութեան Նկատմամբ [A Suggestion to Our Businessmen Regarding the Turkish-Armenian Relations],” Verchin Lur (August 30, 1923), no. 2890.
82 “Թէ Ի՞նչ Պէտք Է Ըլլայ Ազգին Ուղղութիւնը [What Should the Direction of the Nation Be?],” Verchin Lur (May 15, 1923), no. 2798.
83 “Դիմում Մը Խղճմտանքներուն [An Appeal to Conscience],” Verchin Lur (May 19, 1923), no. 2802.
84 “Հայերը Նոր Պայքարի Մը Մեջ Կը Մտնեն [The Armenians Enter Into a New Struggle],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (August 5, 1923), no. 1477; “Հայերու Դերը Թուրքիոյ Ներքին Գործերուն Մէջ [The Role of Armenians in the Internal Affairs of Turkey],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (September 9, 1923), no. 1507.
85 “Սարդի Քաղաքականութիւնը [The Politics of Spider],” Zhoghovurti Tsayně (September 13, 1923), no. 1510.
86 For the publications of the Ottoman-Turkish press criticizing the proclamation of the Republic, see “Efendiler, Devletin Adını Taktınız İşleri De Düzeltebilecek Misiniz? [Gentlemen! You Named the State But Will You Make Things Right?],” Tevhid (October 31, 1923), no. 3872–844; “Cumhuriyetin İlanı [The Proclamation of the Republic],” Vatan (October 31, 1923), no. 199; “Türkiye Cumhuriyeti [The Republic of Turkey],” Akşam (October 31, 1923), no. 185.