https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8412-5446
![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
While it is well-established that exogenous shocks can trigger policy changes, political elites have often been depicted as the initiators of this process. This paper adopts an elite sociology perspective, extending beyond the exclusive focus on political elites, to uncover the pathway through which critical junctures foster policy changes. It employs a case study of the economic crises in Turkey spanning from 1999 to 2001 as an illustrative example. During this period, a significant shift occurred, moving from traditional statist economic policies to widespread neoliberal reforms. Our analysis reveals that this policy shift was not solely influenced by external factors, but facilitated by an intricate process of elite circulation within the economic bureaucracy. This process, which began in the 1980s and gained momentum in the 2000s, coincided with an influx of bureaucratic elites aligned with neoliberal principles and played a crucial role in shaping the trajectory of policy changes.
Acknowledgements
A previous version of this article was presented by Ali Baydarol at a seminar organized by the Department of Political Science and International Relations at Bahçeşehir University on June 2, 2023, and the Turkish Political Science Association’s (SİTD) 2nd National Political Science Congress hosted by Bilkent University on October 7–8, 2023. We thank the organizers, the participants of the seminar and the conference panel, the editor of Turkish Studies, Professor Paul Kubicek, the anonymous reviewers, and Professor Ziya Öniş for their helpful suggestions and feedback on earlier versions. We also thank TÜBİTAK for its generous support through the 122K720 project as its work package 1 on literature review inspired this research and guided the application of the elite sociology perspective to economic policymaking.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, Ali Baydarol, upon reasonable request.
Notes
1 Kaufman, “Community”; and Hogan and Doyle, “The Critical Juncture.”
2 Hogan, “The New Century”; Stark, “New Institutionalism”; and Thies, “A Historical.”
3 Gehlbach and Malesky, “The Contribution.”
4 Hernandez, “IMF.”
5 Szakonyi, “Private.”
6 Kaufman, “Community.”
7 Esen and Gümüşcü, “Building.”
8 Öniş, “Power.”
9 Ercan and Öniş, “Turkish.”
10 Christensen, “Bureaucracies,” 571–2.
11 Ehn et al., “Swedish.”
12 Coalition government formed of Democratic Left Party (Demokratik Sol Partisi, DSP), Nationalist Movement Party (Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi, MHP), and Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi, ANAP).
13 Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi, AKP).
14 Öniş, “Power”; and Marois, “Emerging.”
15 Skocpol, States; and Düzgün, “The International,” 417–18.
16 Aberbach et al., Bureaucrats.
17 Le Bon, Psychologie; Mosca, Elementi; Pareto, Trattato; and Michels, “Die Oligarchischen.”
18 Putnam, The Comparative.
19 Dülffer and Frey, Elites.
20 Eldersveld, “Experimental.”
21 Eldersveld, “Experimental”; and Eldersveld and Walton, Political.
22 Putnam, “Studying”; and see also Putnam, Bureaucrats.
23 Aberbach et al., Bureaucrats.
24 Khan, “The Sociology”; and Schleef, Managing.
25 Gulbrandsen, “Rise.”
26 Flemmen, “The Structure.”
27 Mosca, Elementi.
28 Hartmann, The Sociology.
29 Denord, “Primus.”
30 Putnam, “Attitude.”
31 Bests, The Europe.
32 Organizational parochialism refers to the tendency of organizations and sub-organizational units to prioritize and preserve their own interests (Allison, “Conceptual,” 689). This phenomenon is also known as bureaucratization, which is considered a significant factor that positions bureaucracy as a veto player in achieving the government’s objectives (Kouveliotes, The Impact, 23–37).
33 Allison, “Conceptual,” 700.
34 Putnam, “Elite”; and see also Allison, “Conceptual,” 698.
35 Allison, “Conceptual,” 698.
36 Pareto, Trattatom; and Hartmann, The Sociology, 13.
37 Genieys, The New.
38 Genieys and Hassenteufel, “The Shaping.”
39 English, “The Sociology.”
40 Süleymanoğlu-Kürüm, “The Sociology.”
41 Garvin et al., “Is Yours.”
42 Allison, “Conceptual,” 701.
43 Allison, Essence, 98.
44 Capoccia, “When.”
45 Allison, Essence, 85.
46 See, for instance, Gülen, “Turf.”
47 Düzgün, The Political, 268–78.
48 Ibid.
49 Düzgün “The International,” 429.
50 Owen and Pamuk, A History.
51 Zürcher, Modernleşen, 284.
52 Zürcher, Modernleşen, 284, and Koç, “Atatürk.”
53 Koç, “Atatürk.”
54 Düzgün, The Political, 275–6.
55 Ibid., 277–8.
56 Galiani and Somaini, “Path-dependent.”
57 Zürcher, “Modernleşen.”
58 Düzgün, The Political.
59 Kalaycıoğlu, Turkish.
60 Zürcher, Modernleşen; and Koç, “Atatürk.”
61 Düzgün, “The International”; and Düzgün, The Political.
62 Düzgün, “The International.”
63 MT, “Maliye Bakanları”; MTF, “Hazine Müsteşarı Bakanları”; and Mülkiyeliler Birliği, “Kurucu Üyelerimiz.”
64 Heper, The State, 94, and Kalaycıoğlu, Turkish, 51.
65 Süleymanoğlu-Kürüm, “The Sociology.”
66 Atatürk Ansiklopedisi, “Mekteb-i Mülkiye.”
67 Heper, The State, 37.
68 Öniş, “Turgut,” 121.
69 “Mülkiye Bu Ülkenin Hem Geçmişi Hem Geleceği … Bu Yıl 160 Yaşında.” SonDakika, December 29, 2019.
70 “Tekel’le Giden Dördüncü Bakan.” Cumhuriyet, June 2, 2001.
71 Öniş, “Turgut.”
72 Zürcher, Modernleşen, 425–32.
73 Hiç and Hiç-Gencer, Turkish.
74 Öniş, “Power,” 715.
75 Hiç and Hiç-Gencer, Turkish.
76 “Ecevit, Zonguldak’ta Konuştu: SHP, ANAP’ın Yedeğidir.” Cumhuriyet, March 12, 1989; and “Ecevit Zonguldak ve Bartın’da.” Cumhuriyet, October 14, 1989.
77 IMF. Letter of Intent, September 1999.
78 IMF. Letter of Intent, March 2000.
79 Turan, “Türkiye,” 6.
80 “Ecevit: Özelleştirme Hızlanacak.” Hürriyet, December 7, 2000.
81 Bayhan, 2001 Krizi.
82 Biyografi, “Recep Önal.” Accessed August 20, 2023. https://www.biyografi.net/kisiayrinti.asp?kisiid=78.
83 Brookings, “Kemal Derviş.” Accessed August 20, 2023. https://www.brookings.edu/experts/kemal-dervis/.
84 “BDDK Başkanı Temizel İstifa Etti.” NTV, March 3, 2001. https://arsiv.ntv.com.tr/news/68233.asp; and “Sezer’den BDDK Atamalarına Onay.” NTV, June 13, 2001. https://arsiv.ntv.com.tr/news/88352.asp.
85 “BDDK Başkanı Temizel İstifa Etti.” NTV, March 3, 2001. https://arsiv.ntv.com.tr/news/68233.asp.
86 “2001 Krizinin Kara Kutusu Konuştu.” Hürriyet, November 8, 2008.
87 “IMF’ye Direnen Gidiyor.” Cumhuriyet, May 13, 2001.
88 “Sezer’den BDDK Atamalarına Onay.” NTV, June 13, 2001. https://arsiv.ntv.com.tr/news/88352.asp.
89 Allison, Essence, 85.
90 “BDDK İkinci Başkan ve Üyeliklerine Yapılan Atamalar Hakkında Karar.” Official Gazette, June 13, 2001. https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2001/06/20010613.htm#3.
91 “Sezer’den BDDK Atamalarına Onay.” NTV, June 13, 2001. https://arsiv.ntv.com.tr/news/88352.asp.
92 “Derviş Pembe Tablo Çizdi.” Cumhuriyet, May 16, 2001.
93 “Ekonomide Yine Acı Reçete.” Cumhuriyet, March 15, 2001.
94 IMF. “Letter of Intent,” January 2002.
95 Delice and Yavilioğlu, Dönemler, 311.
96 “IMF’nin İstediği Oldu.” Cumhuriyet, May 10, 2001.
97 “Turkish Opponent of IMF Recovery Program Resigns from Government.” Associated Press International, July 17, 2001.
98 “Enis Öksüz Yine Direndi Telekom Yine Kilitlendi.” Hürriyet, June 28, 2001.
99 “Türk Telekom’da Kriz Çözüldü.” NTV, June 28, 2001. https://arsiv.ntv.com.tr/news/91202.asp.
100 Allison, “Conceptual,” 698.
101 Allison, Essence, 85.
102 “Öksüz’ün İstifasını Bahçeli İstedi.” NTV, July 17, 2001. https://arsiv.ntv.com.tr/news/94782.asp.
103 “IMF: Tebrikler, Ekonomik Düşüşün Sonuna Geldiniz.” Hürriyet, August 5, 2001.
104 “Hakkında.” Oktay Vural Resmi Web Sitesi, Accessed July 7, 2024. https://oktayvural.com.tr/hakkinda/.
105 “Turkish Opponent of IMF Recovery Program Resigns from Government.” Associated Press International, July 17, 2001.
106 “Telekom’a Anayasa Kalkanı.” Cumhuriyet, January 22, 2001.
107 “Turkish Opponent of IMF Recovery Program Resigns from Government.” United Press International, 2001.
108 “Yasama Bölümü.” Official Gazette, June 23, 2001. https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2001/05/20010523.htm.
109 “Yasama Bölümü.” Official Gazette, July 2, 2004. https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2004/07/20040702.htm.
110 Türk Internet, “Türk Telekom Yönetim Kurulu Değişti Kaynak.” Accessed August 20, 2023. https://turk-internet.com/turk-telekom-yonetim-kurulu-degisti/.
111 Baslavent and Akarca, “Micro.”
112 IMF. Letter of Intent, May 2001.
113 “Yalova: Tütün Yasası’nı İmzalamam.” NTV, May 31, 2001. https://arsiv.ntv.com.tr/news/85949.asp.
114 Ibid.
115 Ibid.
116 “Piyasanın Altında Kaldı.” Evrensel, May 31, 2001. https://www.evrensel.net/haber/124703/yalova-piyasanin-altinda-kaldi.
117 “Vetolu Tütün Yasası, Sezer’e Aynen İade.” Hürriyet, October 4, 2001.
118 Ibid.
119 TAPDK, “Tütün,” 2.
120 “Tütün Üst Kurulu Üyeleri Atandı.” Evrensel, July 20, 2002. https://www.evrensel.net/haber/132657/tutun-ust-kurulu-uyeleri-atandi.
121 “Hükümet Programı Tamam Sıra Güvenoyunda.” Hürriyet, November 23, 2002.
122 “5 Yılda 23,3 Milyar Dolarlık Özelleştirme Yapıldı.” Milliyet, March 4, 2008; and “Unakıtan: Özelleştirme Bu Yıl 20 Milyar Doları Bulur.” Hürriyet, September 28, 2005.
123 “Babacan: Özelleştirme Başlayacak.” Hürriyet, April 11, 2003.
124 “Ali Babacan Warns: Don’t Oppose Foreign Investment.” Hürriyet, November 8, 2005.
Additional information
Funding
Notes on contributors
Ali Baydarol
Ali Baydarol is a PhD candidate in political science at Sabancı University, a research assistant in a TÜBİTAK1001 project (No: 122K720) coordinated by Bahçeşehir University, and a forthcoming visiting PhD candidate at the University of Chicago. He is also the co-author of ‘Schrödinger’s Candidate: Türkiye’s Awkward Situation Within the Enlargement Debate’ (with Özgehan Şenyuva), published by Springer Nature in 2024.
Rahime Süleymanoğlu-Kürüm
Rahime Süleymanoğlu-Kürüm is an Associate Professor of Political Science and International Relations and Jean Monnet Chair on Feminist Epistemic Justice in the EU and Beyond (FEJUST) at Bahçeşehir University. She is the coordinator of the TÜBİTAK1001 project (No:122K720) entitled ‘The Role of Elite Sociology in Understanding the Policy Making Process of Turkey-European Union Relations.’ She authored Conditionality, the EU and Turkey, published by Routledge in 2019, and co-edited Feminist Framing of Europeanisation, published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2021. Her articles have been published in high-impact journals such as Geopolitics, Political Studies Review, Third World Quarterly, Youth Studies, and the Journal of Common Market Studies.