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Notes
1 G. Cawthra, ‘Security Governance in South Africa’, African Security Review 14/3 (2005) p.97.
2 R. Ferreira and D. Henk, ‘Military Implications of Human Security: The Case of South Africa’, Paper presented to the 45th Anniversary Biennial International Conference of the Inter‐University Seminar on Armed Forces & Society, Chicago, 21 Oct. 2005, p.1.
3 M. Meredith, The State of Africa: A History of Fifty Years of Independence (Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball 2005) p.647.
4 Ibid. p.419.
5 H. Giliomee, The Afrikaners: Biography of a People (Cape Town: Tafelberg 2003) p.509.
6 Ibid. p.507.
7 Ibid. p.613.
8 The SANDF uses of the notion ‘Education, Training and Development’ (ETD) as an overarching umbrella concept to describe all learning and teaching activities in the South African Dept. of Defence.
9 G.E. Visser, ‘British Influence on Military Training and Education in South Africa: The Case of the South African Military Academy and its Predecessors’, South African Historical Journal 46 (May 2002) pp.63–4.
10 J. Winkates, ‘The Transformation of the South African National Defence Force: A Good Beginning’, Armed Forces & Society 26/3 (Spring 2000) p.452.
11 It is a well‐known fact that the two officers who were primarily responsible for the SADF’s strategic conception from the 1960s onwards (Generals C.F. Fraser and M.A. de M Malan) were strongly influenced by the French. Fraser served as military attaché in Paris while Malan visited Algeria in the 1960s. See, for example, A. Seegers, The Military and the Making of South Africa (London: I.B. Tauris Academic Studies 1996) p.133.
12 Anon, ‘A People’s Army’, Armed Forces 2/12 (Dec. 1977) p.20.
13 Translated directly, this means ‘a farmer makes a plan’. Umkhonto we Sizwe and other revolutionary armies often referred to the white population in general and the SADF in particular as ‘the boers’(the farmers). Seen from this perspective, the notion of ‘’n boer‐maak‐’n‐plan’ can be translated literally into ‘the SADF makes a plan’.
14 A very senior South African army general expressed this view. He rose to the rank of colonel in the SADF. Interviewed at the Military Academy, 7 Dec. 2004.
15 Until 1994, the South Africa military was known as the South African Defence Force. In 1994 it was changed to the South African National Defence Force.
16 Cawthra (note 1) p.98.
17 H. Adam and K. Moodley, The Negotiated Revolution: Society and Politics in Post‐Apartheid South Africa (Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball 1993).
18 Meredith (note 3) p.426.
19 None of the forces that fought the apartheid state were part of a bureaucratised professional national armed force. They were the armed wings of political movements: Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the armed wing of the ANC; the Azanian Peoples Liberation Army (APLA), the armed wing of the Pan‐Africanist Congress (PAC); and the KwaZulu Self Protection Force (KZSPF), the armed wing of Inkatha. Since 1994, these forces are referred to as the non‐statutory forces.
20 This conclusion was confirmed through a large number of informal discussions with former members of the non‐statutory forces. What was interesting was that these members agree with the statement without any doubt when they are addressed individually. Yet, when addressing a group of former ‘comrades’, they are more reluctant to agree with the view. These members accepted that the klipgooiers within the country contributed significantly to the ‘experience’ of the non‐statutory forces integrated into the SANDF.
21 I. Liebenberg, ‘The Integration of the Military in Post‐Liberation South Africa: The Contribution of Revolutionary Armies’, Armed Forces & Society 24/1 (Fall 1997) p.107.
22 L. Heinecken, ‘South Africa’s Postmodern Military: Adapting to the New Strategic and Political Environment’, Paper presented at the First Cranfield University International Conference on Defence Management, Cranfield University, Shrivenham, UK, 24–25 April 2003, p.10.
23 Interview with a senior SA Army general at the Military Academy, 7 Dec. 2004.
24 Twenty‐three nations hosted non‐statutory force training, from nearby Lesotho to the Soviet Union and Cuba. See J.A. Higgs, ‘Creating the South African National Defence Force’, Joint Forces Quarterly 25 (Summer 2000) p.48.
25 G. Kruys, ‘Some Major Factors Influencing Military Efficiency in the South African National Defence Force’, ISSUP Bulletin 4/2004 (Univ. of Pretoria: Institute for Strategic Studies 2004) p.2.
26 A. Perlmutter and A.V. Bennet (eds.), The Political Influence of the Military (London: Yale UP 1980) p.23.
27 L. Heinecken, ‘South Africa’s Armed Forces in Transition: Adapting to the New Strategic and Political Environment’, Society in Transition 36/1 (2005) p.5.
28 South African Dept. of Defence, An Appreciation for Chief of Joint Training on Tertiary Education in the Department of Defence MA/R/501/6/1, Military Academy, Saldanha, 26 May 1998.
29 The tradition of lifelong service is a tradition that was taken over from the SADF. The SADF had a relatively small regular component with the bulk of its strength based on conscript and reserve forces.
30 Dept. of Defence, ‘The DOD HR Strategy 2010: Distinguishing Fact from Fiction’, DOD Bulletin No. 52/05, 7 Sept. 2005.
31 Heinecken (note 27).
32 J. Jooste, ‘Keynote Address: Knowledge Management in the SA Army’, Landward Defence Institute 1 (March 2003) p.6.
33 The South African National War College, for example, outsourced the management component of their programme to the Tshwane University of Technology.
34 Telephone interview with a senior SA Army general, 2 Aug. 2005. He described education in the SANDF in Afrikaans as ‘meganies’ and ‘merkstaat verknog’.
35 Cawthra (note 1) p.100.
36 Brig. Gen. J.J. Smit, ‘Die Uitdagings wat die Departement van Verdediging die Hoof moet bied tydens die Onderrigproses met die Aanbied van Hoër Onderwys binne die Raamwerk van die Suid‐Afrikaanse Grondwet, die Heropbou en Ontwikkelingsprogram, die Wet op die Kwalifikasieowerheid en die Witskrif op Verdediging, Staff’ Paper for the South African National Defence College, Pretoria, 1997, p.20.
37 This problem was pointed out during interviews with members of the directing staff at both the War College and the Defence College, July 2004.
38 Jooste (note 32) p.4.
39 This problem was pointed out in a number of interviews with members of the directing staff at the arms of service colleges and the War College. The problem seems to manifest itself specifically at lower‐level ETD institutions.
40 Interview with a European officer serving on the directing staff of a senior military ETD institution in Pretoria, 22 June 2005.
41 L. Engelbrecht, ‘‘Going Ballistic’ – The SANDF Six Years On’, Defence Systems Daily (21 Aug. 2000),. available at ⟨http://defence‐data.co/features/fpage40.htm⟩ [ accessed 15 Nov. 2005].
42 Smit (note 36) p.21.
43 Engelbrecht (note 41). It is a widely known fact that the SANDF has problems in retiring personnel who are supernumerary because of the protection of these people by the very rigid South African labour laws. It should also be kept in mind that there is no ‘tradition’ of retiring from the military in South Africa at an age that would allow for a second career in the private sector or another part of the public sector. There are also no incentives, like pension benefits, that encourage people to retire. In addition, South Africa is a country with a very high unemployment rate.
44 It should be noted that in the case of professional officers like doctors, military lawyers and military university educators (the academic staff of the Military Academy for example) salaries are not linked to the rank. This statement therefore applies primarily to what in the SANDF are referred to as the ‘military practitioners’.
45 G.H. Rhynedance, ‘More Civilians on the West Point Faculty: Good for the Army, or Not?’, thesis presented to the Faculty of the US Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Military Art and Science, Ft Leavenworth, Kansas, 1993.
46 Please note that this has been tried for a short time at the SA Army College. However, for some unknown reason the practise was abandoned. Discussion with a general from the Joint Training Formation of the SANDF at the Military Academy, 11 Aug. 2005.
47 J. Herbst, ‘Mbeki’s South Africa’, Foreign Affairs 84/6 (Nov./Dec. 2005) pp.93–105.
48 Engelbrecht (note 41).
49 Interview with a European officer serving on the directing staff of a senior military ETD institution in Pretoria, 22 June 2005.
50 These are the opinions of the author based on his own experience as a student at the SA Army College and other ETD institutions and as a member of the Faculty of Military Science (South African Military Academy), Stellenbosch University. It was confirmed in discussions with SANDF members from both the former statutory and non‐statutory forces.
51 L. Engelbrecht, ‘SANDF at 10: An Assessment’, African Armed Forces Journal (Feb. 2004) p.9.
52 Discussion with a senior officer at the South African Military Academy, 2 Aug. 2005.
53 K. Owen, ‘The Way Forward: The Press’, in G. Jacobs (ed.), South Africa: The Road Ahead (Johannesburg: Ball 1986) p.231.
54 See for example the remarks by Hartley on the difficulty the SANDF experienced in funding the regional military commitments along with routine training and maintenance. W. Hartley, ‘African Peace Burden Cannot be SA’s Alone Warns Lekota’, Business Day, 16 Feb. 2005.
55 South African Dept. of Defence, ‘Joint Training Formation Level 2 Strategic Business Plans FY 2005/6 to FY 2007/8’, Joint Training Formation, 27 May 2004, p.3.
56 South African Dept. of Defence, ‘Joint Training Formation Level 2 Strategic Business Plans FY 2006/7 to FY 2008/9’, Joint Training Formation, 20 April 2005, p.4.
57 Interview with a member of the directing staff of the SA Army College, Pretoria, 7 July 2004.
58 South African Dept. of Defence, Joint Training Formation Level 2 Strategic Business Plans FY 2006/7 to FY 2008/9, 20 April 2005, p.4.
59 J. Gooch, ‘Introduction: Military Doctrine and Military History’ in J. Gooch (ed.), The Origins of Contemporary Doctrine, Occasional Paper Number 30 (Camberley, UK: Strategic and Combat Studies Institute Sept. 1997) p.6.
60 Ibid. p.6.
61 Foreign military manuals are often seen at ETD institutions in the SANDF. It is also obvious that South African doctrine literary style echoes that of foreign doctrinal manuals, British manuals to be specific.
62 E. Jordaan, ‘South African Defence since 1994: A Study in Policy‐Making’, unpublished MMil thesis, Stellenbosch Univ., Dec. 2004.
63 Telephone interview with a senior SA Army general, 2 Aug. 2005.
64 Telephone interview with a SA Army officer, 2 Aug. 2005.
65 Personal conversation with the Captain (SAN) responsible for maritime doctrinal development in the South African Navy, Military Academy, 31 Oct. 2005.
66 Telephone interview with a senior SA Army general, 2 Aug. 2005.
67 Interview with a senior SANDF officer, SA School of Armour, Bloemfontein, 28 June 2004.
68 Engelbrecht, ‘SANDF at 10’ (note 51).
69 The view of a senior officer at 43 Brigade of the SA Army. Conversation at 46 Bde HQ, Johannesburg, 2 June 2005.
70 T.S. Langston, ‘The Civilian Side of Military Culture’, Parameters 30/3 (Autumn 2000) p.24.
71 M. Harmse, ‘The New Language Policy’, Salut (June 1998) pp.14–17.
72 South African Dept. of Defence, ‘Summary of Factors that Influences the Transfer of the Lecturer’s Message (and Ultimately Student Performance) in a (multilingual) Lecturing Situation’, Submission to the Teaching and Learning Committee: 20 July 2005, Attachment to the Agenda of a Meeting of the Faculty Board of the Faculty of Military Science, Stellenbosch University, Military Academy, Saldanha 27 July 2005.
73 English is the first language of only about 10 per cent of the members of the SANDF. Interview with senior SA Army general at the Military Academy, 7 Dec. 2004.
74 SA Soldier is nothing but a popular magazine, while Scientia Militaria is a purely Dept. of Education accredited academic research journal that publishes peer‐reviewed academic articles. There is an urgent need for a journal that is aimed somewhere between these two extremes, in the genre of the Military Review published by the US Army General Command and Staff College.
75 Dept. of Defence, Communication Instruction No 01/2000: Uncontrolled Release of Information CSANDF/CDCC/511/2, Pretoria, Aug. 2000. The instruction states that authorisation is required from the Minister of Defence ‘for the release of other forms of information like speeches, presentations, etc. at public seminars and all public appearances’.
76 Jooste (note 32) p.7.
77 Engelbrecht, ‘SANDF at 10’(note 51).
78 This specific problem has been experienced by academics at the Military Academy.
79 Brig. Gen. J.J. Smit, for example, pointed out that almost no ‘positional’ or ‘staff papers’ are being written within the Dept. of Defence except those that are written as part of formal programmes at the different ETD institutions. View expressed during discussions with the School for Security and Africa Studies at the Military Academy, 10 Aug. 2005.
80 Interview with a member of the directing staff of the SANWC, 6 July 2004.
81 Discussion with a colonel from the Joint Operations Division of the SANDF at the Military Academy, 24 Oct. 2005.
82 L. Heinecken, ‘Military Unionism and the New Dynamics of Employee Relations’, unpublished PhD dissertation, King’s College, Dept. of War Studies, London, 2005, p.227.
83 Engelbrecht, ‘SANDF at 10’ (note 51).
84 Telephone interview with a very senior general from the SA Army, 2 Aug. 2005. It is also quite evident from the nature of the current debate concerning ETD in the SANDF and the inability of the military to determine what precisely needs to be done in order to rectify the challenges that are experienced in the system. One senior officer working in the Joint Training Division involved in this process, for example, phoned the author and asked what (training) course they need to develop in order to increase the ability of officers to think analytically.
85 Heinecken, ‘Military Unionism and the New Dynamics of Employee Relations’ (note 82) p.229.
86 Engelbrecht, ‘SANDF at 10’ (note 51) p.8.
87 Cawthra (note 1) p.98.
88 T. Du Plessis, ‘’n Siek Politieke Kultuur in die ANC’, Rapport 36/28, 10 July 2005, p.18.
89 Herbst (note 47).
90 Du Plessis (note 88). The book by W.M. Gumede, Thabo Mbeki and the Battle for the Soul of the ANC (Cape Town: Zebra Press 2005) also provides some insights into this particular phenomenon.
91 This particular point was raised by a number of officers who were interviewed in the SANDF. Also see Kruys (note 25) p.9.
92 Telephone conversation with a general officer of the Chief Joint Training Formation of the SANDF, 29 Sept. 2005. He indicated that the SANDF is aware of this particular problem and is in the processes of developing measures to address it. He specifically refers to the development of an assessment centre to test the language, cognitive and other abilities of individual officers before they are allowed on courses.