An ethnography on the linguistic challenges and EAL support for teenage Chinese EAL students in an independent school

ABSTRACT

This ethnographic study reports four teenage Chinese EAL students’ learning journey in a UK independent school. Due to linguistic barriers, they encountered significant challenges in their social lives and academic studies. The school arranged EAL lessons to improve students’ English proficiency. However, participants were concerned that the EAL classes did not meet international students’ linguistic needs. The study suggests that intercultural communication and bilingual pedagogies should be adopted to better understand students’ cultural differences and learning styles and support their academic transition.

本文采用民族志研究法，讲述了四名中国学生在英国一所私立学校的学习历程。由于语言障碍，他们在社交生活和学业上都遇到了巨大的挑战。学校安排了EAL（英语）课程，旨在提高学生的英语水平。然而，学生担心EAL课程不能满足国际学生的语言需求。该研究建议加强跨文化交流，采用双语教学法，以更好地了解学生的文化差异和学习风格，从而更好地帮助他们的适应学业过渡。

KEYWORDS:

• Teenage Chinese EAL (English as an additional language) students
• linguistic barriers; EAL classes; intercultural communication
• bilingual pedagogies

Introduction

Recently, Chinese students have come to the UK for education at younger ages (Lowe, 2007). Most studies have been conducted with older international Chinese undergraduate and postgraduate students, investigating their linguistic and academic adaptation issues while studying in UK universities (Bamber, 2014; Huang, 2008; Wang, 2018). However, there is a lack of research on younger Chinese groups, particularly 14 to 18-year-olds studying GCSEs/A-levels within the British education system. Given the growing number of teenage Chinese students in the UK, I argue this is important. These learners are at a critical stage when considering early overseas studies, switching between education systems, and international differences in classroom environments.

This article aims to:

• Investigate the linguistic challenges Chinese EAL students encountered when transitioning to an independent UK school.

• Identify how they should be supported to succeed linguistically in their learning journey.

Background

The Annual School Census shows a steady increase in the percentage of students studying in schools where the first language is not English. In 2019, over 1.5 million EAL students studied in UK schools, with 17% in secondary schools in England (Department for Education, 2019). In most independent schools, Chinese students comprise the highest percentage of international EAL students. According to the Independent Schools Council (ISC) Census of 2023, China remains the leading market for overseas students studying in independent schools with 8,744 students from Mainland China (ISC, 2023, p. 16). Citing information from the Chinese Embassy, the Global Times reported in May 2021 that approximately 216,000 Chinese international students were studying in the UK despite the pandemic (Kang, 2021).

However, international Chinese students encounter many challenges while studying in the UK, and English is considered the most significant issue hindering international Chinese EAL students’ adaptation and adjustment (Edwards et al., 2007; Wong, 2004). EAL programmes provide important linguistic support for young overseas students in British schools whose first language is not English. Many studies have been conducted on EAL learning and teaching in state schools in the UK (e.g. Mehmedbegovic, 2008; Sharples, 2021). Little research has been conducted on Chinese EAL students in UK schools. Chen’s (2007) research is one of the few studies on Chinese EAL students in mainstream state-run English schools in London. Her findings showed that Chinese EAL learners could not participate in classroom activities or communicate with their teachers and classmates due to low English proficiency. They felt left out, misunderstood, and frustrated in the class because of language-related difficulties. Understandably, they were desperate for language support. However, research on Chinese EAL learners in independent schools has been unexplored. My research addresses this gap by examining how Chinese EAL students are linguistically supported in an independent school context.

Theoretical understanding of Chinese EAL students’ language learning

The Chinese educational system uses audio-bilingualism and grammar-translation methods in foreign language classrooms (Hu, 2002). Behaviourism emphasises imitation, practice, and reinforcement in language development (Skinner, 1957), while audio-lingual approaches are widely adopted in second language lessons, where classroom activities emphasise mimicry, rote learning, and language drills (Lightbown & Spada, 2013). Cognitivism emphasises that universal grammar offers the best way to understand second language learning, and children will only learn a language when they understand its rules and structures (Chomsky & Skinner, 1959; Cook, 2001). Thus, a grammar-translation approach that emphasises language structures and regulations is primarily adopted in second-language teaching (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). This approach enables students to build a solid foundation in vocabulary and grammatical rules. However, it does not provide enough opportunities for them to practice their listening and speaking skills, which are considered major obstacles in communication when they study abroad (Huang, 2006).

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been promoted in China since the 1990s (Hu, 2002), especially in schools in developed cities. For example, tremendous efforts and resources have been expended on revamping curricula for education, updating English syllabi to include CLT principles, producing communicative-oriented English textbooks, and so on (ibid.). However, CLT has not received widespread support, and the traditional approach still dominates many classrooms (ibid.). According to Yang (2000), there has been limited use of the communicative approach because it requires native-like fluency in English and native-like knowledge of the culture of English-speaking countries. Few teachers have received such training. Another reason is that there are many constraints on adopting CLT in the Chinese context, including large class sizes, limited instructional time, examination pressures, and cultural factors. Therefore, most overseas Chinese students who are taught English lessons dominated by grammar translation and audio-lingual approaches fail to communicate fluently while studying in the host country (Chen, 1999; Mori, 2000; Wong, 2004).

Other questions include whether EAL students acquire English because they receive instruction or are in an English language environment (Sharples, 2021, p. 23) and whether a communicative approach can be applied at all levels in a language programme (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). Sharples (2021) highlighted that our brain acquires first and subsequent languages differently. Pupils acquire English by receiving instructions and being immersed in the English language environment. Therefore, bilingual approaches such as interlanguage, code-switching, and translanguaging are recommended in second-language teaching (Baker, 2006; Cook, 2001). Vygotsky’s (1978) theory supports the use of students’ first language to help them understand the subjects because this would enhance their cognitive development. Influenced by Vygotsky’s theory, bilingual instruction plays an important role in second language acquisition because bilingual teachers can use their first language to explain grammatical rules and difficult English vocabulary; therefore, they can teach language-learning strategies more effectively (Medgyes, 1994).

Methodology

My study was conducted using an ethnographic approach to better interpret issues in the natural and dynamic settings of the participants. Ethnography is an ideal educational tool that enables learners to describe aspects of their cultural lives, feelings, beliefs, needs, and acts (Mansur & Gideon, 2003).

An ethnographic approach was well suited, as I have worked as an EAL teacher in different independent schools and as an education guardian for teenage Chinese EAL students in London since 2012. Over the last ten years, I have found an increasing number of Chinese teenagers studying in independent schools in England. As they transferred from the Chinese to the English education system and studied all subjects in English in a new country, most encountered linguistic difficulties in their academic studies and social lives.

As an education guardian for my participants during their studies in the UK, I conducted research for 2017–2019. I built strong relationships with the research participants and a solid understanding of the research context. As I was not a teacher in the research school, I could maintain a professional distance that allowed adequate observation and data recording because close teacher-student relationships may lead to questions of professionalism and appropriateness (Consoli, 2021). In other words, being too close to the participants leads to abandoning some important data and tasks in favour of participation (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995, p. 112).

Access and settings

The setting for this research is MM School, a co-educational independent school in the south of London, recruiting students from the ages of 3 to 18 years and offering education from nursery to sixth form. MM School mainly serves local and international students from more privileged and affluent backgrounds. Most international students were Chinese. I built the first connection with MM school through an international admissions team by sending 15 students to attend the school’s GCSE and A-level entry tests in early 2017. I gained further access to the school in September 2017, when I accompanied students and their parents to register on the first day of the school, and I was fortunate that both the director of admission and the head of the school showed me around. Having built further connections with the school, I asked whether I could conduct my fieldwork there, which was an ideal place for my research because of the large number of Chinese students taking GCSE/A-level courses. I explained my research topic and the methodology that I would use and was delighted that they agreed.

Participants

There were approximately 100 boarders from mainland China studying at the MM School. Four students, aged 16–17, who spoke Mandarin as their first language (Vivi Wei, Kitty Lai, Bob Zhang, and James Li) were invited to participate in the study. All these four Chinese students had high expectations from their parents, and they worked very hard to prepare to enter one of the top five UK universities after completing their A-level courses. As their agent, I kept close contact with these students and their parents, helping them apply to MM School. I maintained close contact with the school, parents, and students during their studies in the UK as their education guardian. This guaranteed that I could conduct research with them over a long period because they were taking A-level courses at MM School and would later pursue higher education in Britain, which enabled me to understand their learning experiences in the UK in-depth. Two students were at the pre-intermediate level in English proficiency with total scores of 5–5.5 in IELTS. However, the other two students achieved a higher level of English proficiency at around 6 or 6.5 in IELTS. Choosing participants with different levels of English proficiency helped me understand how their linguistic levels affected their adaptation to English academic and social environments.

Data collection

Various research methods were adopted for data collection, including participant observation, semi-structured and unstructured interviews, field notes, and reflective journals, to provide descriptive, comprehensive, and analytical accounts of the participants. The participants’ narratives in my ethnographic study served as powerful instruments for constructing a rich, in-depth description of the experiences of Chinese EAL students in the UK.

Participant observation

In this research, focus group members were observed based on their ordinary curriculum to provide a complete learning cycle for classroom interactions and academic performance. First, I observed some lessons such as Mathematics, Science, and Business to see what language barriers my target students encountered and the language support provided in the mainstream class. I then observed EAL lessons taught by different EAL teachers to see how Chinese students were supported in meeting their linguistic needs. As an insider, sharing the same cultural background as the focus group helped me understand their problems and better infer their thoughts from their experiences. However, the drawbacks included potentially becoming ‘too close to the participants and thereby not attaining the distance and objectivity necessary for valid research’ (Brannick & Coghlan, 2007).

Unstructured/semi-structured interviews

My participants were first interviewed based on the research questions, further explored by building on their responses. The rationale for using this approach was to understand the participants’ perspectives rather than generalisations about behaviour. The interviews took place in school settings, including playgrounds, dining halls, student accommodations, classrooms, and football fields, to create a natural setting where participants felt free to share their opinions. As students’ perspectives changed, I maintained long-term communication to check and compare the data collected at different times. Furthermore, I could talk to them in Chinese and English as a bilingual speaker. I decided to interview them in Mandarin, which gave them more opportunities to talk to me in-depth about their experiences.

Field notes

While collecting the data, I wrote field notes in each section, such as classroom observations and interviews, recording or writing down my field notes immediately after leaving the site to avoid forgetting important details. The notes were expanded and developed at the earliest. Descriptive field notes can reflect a researcher’s account of their learning and speculations, feelings, problems, ideas, prejudices, analyses, and plans for future inquiry. Furthermore, reflective notes may help readers better understand the descriptions, analyses, and conclusions of the study (Emerson et al., 2011).

Reflective journals

Reflective journals provide additional data on personal and affective variables in language learning (Bailey, 1983). In order to obtain an insider view of students’ English learning experiences in MM School, my target students were asked to write weekly reflective journals. Students were allowed to write about anything related to their English language learning, academic studies, or the cultural shocks they encountered in the UK. They could also use Chinese if they had difficulty expressing their ideas in English.

Data analysis

Thematic analysis

Thematic analysis was applied in this study because it is flexible, transparent, and detailed enough to interpret various aspects of the research topic and includes specific guidelines for ‘identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within the data and describing data in rich detail’ (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 79). Therefore, this study used thematic analysis to search for themes from class observations and the participants’ narratives to generate insights into and interpretations of what was observed and told in their stories.

The analysis began with a familiarity with the data. First, I read all the field notes and examined all the recordings. After listening to the audio recordings several times, I completed the transcriptions and translated them into English. I reread the data several times and checked the transcriptions against the original audio recordings for accuracy and to capture subtle information missed in the recording. This process was very time-consuming but rewarding, as it allowed me to become immersed in the entire data to develop a better understanding of the thematic data for further analysis.

Second, coding was used to identify themes. These codes are the building blocks of the analysis. According to Braun and Clarke (2012, p. 61), if the analysis is a brick-built house with a tile roof, the themes are the walls and ceiling, and the codes are individual bricks and tiles. This implies that the codes identify and label a feature of the data potentially relevant to the research question. During the coding process, I read through the collected data, identifying items potentially relevant to the research questions, coded them, and marked the text in different colours on my computer. All the initial codes relevant to the research questions and literature were incorporated into the themes. The codes and themes became more refined and helped explain thematic relationships and in-depth analyses within and across topics through coding. I also reviewed and refined the themes several times to ensure their validity, accuracy, and consistency. I continued to work on data recoding and theme verification until the themes better represented my research questions.

Reliability, validity, and triangulation

Each research study can be assessed in terms of its reliability and validity by carefully focusing on the study’s conceptualisation, the manner in which the data were collected, analysed, and interpreted, and the way the findings are presented (McKee, 2011).

Internal reliability and validity are usually achieved through triangulation, one of the best-known ethnographic techniques to ensure data collection and analysis validity. Triangulation refers to using different methods, such as interviewing, observation, and official document review, in data collection and analysis to ensure the internal validity of ethnographic studies (Webb et al., 1966). Generally, there are two main techniques: data and methodological triangulation. Information can be collected from different sources in data triangulation, whereas methodological triangulation refers to different data collection methods. Data triangulation involves comparing data related to the same phenomenon but derived from different phases of fieldwork, different points in the setting of temporal cycles, or, as in respondent validation, the accounts of different participants differentially located in the setting. To ensure the validity of the data collection and analysis, I adopted triangulation techniques to compare the data collected using different research methods. This helped me check the validity of the data and provide an in-depth description of the meanings in a particular setting (ibid.).

Data transcription & translation

Translation plays an important role in verifying the validity and reliability of ethnographic studies. While using an ethnographic approach to collect data through participant observation and interviews, it is important to use translation when presenting data to understand another cultural perspective, especially when participants and the researcher share the same non-English native language and non-English data need to be shared in translation. When cultural contexts differ, interlingual translation is required (Van Nes et al., 2010) because concepts in one language may be understood differently in another. Therefore, I employed a translation technique to transcribe and present the data. This enabled me to gain more detailed and richer data by drawing on the participants’ entire linguistic repertoire with an in-depth description of teenage Chinese students’ learning experiences in the UK.

Ethical consideration

Ethical behaviour in research is desirable and essential to obtaining permission from universities and research institutions to conduct research (Walford, 2008). It is important that all participants provide informed consent before participating in any study, and careful consideration must be taken to protect their confidentiality. I read Revised Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research (2004) and Good Practice in Educational Research Writing (2000), published by the British Educational Research Association. I followed all guidelines during my research. I obtained permission to conduct my research by signing the Ethical Practice in Research Form provided by the university. After explaining to the participants what my research was about and how their identity and personal information would be kept confidential, they consented to collect the data for my research.

Reflexivity

Reflexivity refers to the sets of dispositions and activities by which researchers locate themselves within the research processes while also attending to how their presence, values, beliefs, knowledge, and personal and professional histories shape their research spaces, relationships, and outcomes (Consoli & Ganassin, 2023, p. 1). My past experiences and professional backgrounds helped me develop trust and engage with the participants, as well as enhance the rigour and depth of my research. As reflexivity serves to carefully self-monitor the impact of researchers’ biases, beliefs, and personal experiences on research (Berger, 2015, p. 220), it helped me carefully monitor the impact of my background and personal experiences on my studies. I acknowledge the importance of reflexive subjectivity, including autobiographical details, that contributed to my reasons for undertaking research with Chinese EAL students at a UK independent school. Being Chinese and sharing similar experiences of studying overseas drew us closer. However, I did not incorporate my experiences, beliefs, or insights into the process. Instead, as a researcher, I made ‘the familiar strange’ (Reynolds, 2023) and provided my participants with a platform to share their experiences, during which I chose deep questioning and active listening.

Findings

The findings of this study indicate that participants encountered significant challenges in communicating with their English peers or students from other countries, which affected their social lives in the UK. They also found it challenging to understand core A-level subjects in English-medium classrooms because of language barriers and their low English proficiency in specialised vocabulary. The school arranged EAL lessons to improve the student’s English proficiency. However, there is a significant mismatch between EAL teachers and Chinese students because of their different cultural backgrounds, learning experiences, and expectations.

Linguistic challenges

Judging from the data, the participants had positive expectations of UK education and considered it an alternative route to success before being transferred to Britain. However, they all encountered significant challenges and dilemmas in their daily lives and academic studies because of linguistic factors.

Linguistic barriers in daily communication

In their daily lives, students felt discomfort after moving out of the Chinese community and encountered difficulties when trying to engage more fully with local students or students of other nationalities. James Li revealed that his poorly spoken English made him anxious while communicating with his peers.

I did not have any English friends. One important reason is that I am not confident with my English speaking. I feel anxious about communicating with English peers.

Bob Zhang also found it hard to understand the intonation and pronunciation of the local students. It was more difficult for him to understand them when they used slang terms.

I felt anxious about talking to the native English students in school. Their pure English intonation and pronunciation are difficult to understand because I learned American English in China. The most challenging part is they use slang when they speak, and I cannot understand a single word.

The interview data above show that most Chinese students found it challenging to move outside cultural boundaries. Language was a significant barrier hindering socialisation with their English peers. This finding is consistent with the results of several other studies. For example, various researchers have pointed out that language barriers can impede international students’ attempts to make friends and interact with locals (Chen, 1999; Mori, 2000). This has hindered their adaptation to social life in the UK.

Linguistic challenges in academic studies

The data show that linguistic difficulties also affected students’ academic studies in UK schools, where all subjects were taught through English-medium instruction. For example, when learning unfamiliar and complex subject knowledge in English-medium instruction contexts, students’ cognitive capacities were challenged by both the subject content and the language. Most students reported that unfamiliar words and complicated concepts prevented them from understanding important content delivered in the English-medium classroom.

For instance, Vivi Wei revealed her language barrier in her journal:

Learning all the core subjects such as mathematics, further mathematics, physics, and economics in English is challenging. I cannot understand what the teacher said in the lessons. I can understand most English words, but not the meaning … There are many vocabularies with specific terms or concepts in each subject. These terms make it more difficult for me to understand the lessons, particularly in economics and physics lessons.

James Li shared similar ideas, revealing that his English deficiency and English way of thinking affected his understanding of the subject.

I could not understand many key terms because of many new and complicated words. The teacher explained them to me, but I still did not understand them. English-medium instruction is actually a big challenge for many international Chinese students. Economics is the most difficult subject for me because I never learned it before I arrived in the UK … I do not understand a lot of concepts and definitions. I have to memorise many definitions, but I actually do not quite understand them.

Bob Zhang shared that as he was studying all the subjects through English-medium instruction, he could not sufficiently understand the lesson content and failed to catch the key points or understand the tasks in the subject owing to his insufficient English competence.

All the subjects are taught in English, but I could not fully understand what the teachers taught in class owing to my low language proficiency, especially my poor listening skills. Frankly, it was very challenging for me for the first few months when I arrived in the UK. I could hardly understand my teachers. I knew what they were talking about, but I couldn’t catch the important points delivered in the class. Therefore, I was unable to finish my tasks to a high standard. I normally get a B, and sometimes C in business, and a C or D in geography because I am unfamiliar with the writing structure.

Before arriving in the UK, most of my participants were under the illusion that they might not have had problems studying mathematics or science subjects because their mathematical understanding was usually quite strong, and they did not need too much vocabulary for those topics, compared to economics, business, or geography. However, studying in the UK, they found learning mathematics, physics, and chemistry challenging, mainly when they studied the subjects further and encountered new vocabulary. For example, Kitty Lai stated the following:

When I was in Year 12, I thought mathematics would never be a challenge for me as I always got scores of more than 90% in all the exams at school. However, when I moved on to Year 13, I began to study further mathematics, and I found it is not as easy as I expected. Statistics and mechanics are becoming more and more difficult as I study further because there are more definitions, which requires a higher command of English.

James Li also considered physics and chemistry difficult, especially when he had to write reports on experiments or address exam questions that required him to explain how he understood concepts.

Chemistry and physics are not as easy as Chinese students always thought before studying in the UK. Actually, they are difficult. For example, in physics, my weakest area is waves and electricity. There are many definitions and experiments. I think it is hard to get good results in this paper. I always lose several points on questions that require us to explain some concepts or to describe a feature … Chemistry is more difficult. I chose Chemistry in the first term of Year 12 as I thought it would be interesting and easy, but the fact is that I could not understand a word in lessons. I dropped it quickly after learning it for a few weeks.

Owing to their inadequate English proficiency, most participants encountered significant challenges in studying their A-level subjects in English-medium instruction classrooms in the UK, which hindered their understanding of subject content. For example, the participants found it challenging to understand most definitions and concepts, particularly economics, because of their insufficient vocabulary. Moreover, writing essays represents a significant challenge because students lack English proficiency, have different writing styles, and have scant knowledge of economics topics. This finding is consistent with many studies that have identified a lack of English competence as a major obstacle to Chinese students’ academic success (Sun & Chen, 1999; Wan, 2001). Some studies have also shown that students are dissatisfied with the knowledge they have gained when English is used as a medium of instruction because they fail to understand the key points (Chang, 2010; Tatzl, 2011).

EAL support

The above data indicate that language barriers significantly hindered Chinese students’ adaptation to academic studies during their transcultural academic experience in the UK. The MM School arranges the EAL lessons to improve students’ English proficiency; however, there was a significant mismatch between EAL teachers and Chinese EAL students due to different cultural backgrounds, learning preferences, and expectations. Participants were concerned that the EAL classes would not correspond to the linguistic needs of international students.

EAL classes in MM School

Most independent schools in the UK have an EAL department that runs EAL classes to support international students whose lessons are taught in English. MM School has an EAL department with four teachers, two of whom are British and the other two from elsewhere in Europe. The EAL department aims to support students in language learning and communicative competence so that they can speak and write accurately, clearly, and confidently. Students who arrive in Year 12 without an English language qualification will be prepared for IELTS, and those who come in Years 7 to 10 will be given general language support to help them access the whole curriculum and develop their speaking and writing competencies. All Chinese A-level students attend at least four weekly EAL lessons to improve their academic English proficiency and prepare them to pass IELTS for their immediate university application.

Pedagogies in EAL classes

I observed lessons taught by three teachers to gain insight into how the EAL lessons were taught at MM School, such as how the class was organised, the pedagogies employed in teaching, and class awareness of foreign language teaching and learning. Based on my observations, a communicative approach was widely adopted in all the EAL lessons. After each lesson, I interviewed teachers and students individually to understand their attitudes toward teaching.

Misunderstandings and mismatches

EAL teachers’ perspective

The teachers usually spoke highly of Chinese students, who they described as hard-working, modest, and disciplined. However, when confronted with disappointment, teachers also had reservations, which are worthy of attention.

Hard-working but not interactive

Most EAL teachers perceived Chinese students as hard-working, listening well, and finishing their homework on time. However, EAL teachers were disappointed with what they saw: Chinese students’ passive participation in lessons, as they were unwilling to work in groups and preferred whole classes or individual work.

Vivi is a hard worker; however, she must become more vocal when there is a misunderstanding or uncertainty in her own understanding. James Li is too quiet in my class. He should try to speak more in lessons and outside the classroom to build up fluency and confidence. (EAL teacher A)

Most of the Chinese students work hard, but they are not active in class. They are often quiet in pair work or group discussion. They don’t like asking questions. That is why their progress with English has been limited over the last few months. (EAL teacher B)

Disciplined but less autonomous learners

In addition to highlighting passive learning, the EAL teachers argued that while most Chinese students seldom broke school rules and attended all classes on time, they demonstrated less learner autonomy.

Chinese students are disciplined. However, only studying in EAL classes is not enough to help them pass the exam. They need to read widely outside class to improve vocabulary and see grammatical structures in context. They need to listen to as much English as possible. (EAL teacher A)

Kitty finishes all the tasks in my EAL lessons. To further improve, she still needs to read extensively, both for pleasure and academic purposes, as this will allow her to develop her range of vocabulary and her awareness of lexical choice. (EAL teacher B)

The data reflect the passive learning that most Chinese students exhibit in class. Many Western academics have described Chinese students negatively as using a silent, rote, and passive style of learning (McInerney, 2005; Park, 2000), interpreting students’ abilities and ways of learning according to the current Western cultural context. However, this interpretation does not consider the Chinese learning culture or students’ achievements and expectations. Influenced by Confucianism, which emphasises the importance of order and respect for authorities and values the pragmatic acquisition of knowledge, Chinese students are accustomed to listening carefully and silently to teachers in class (Jin & Cortazzi, 2006). However, this does not imply that they are not good students. Although Chinese students are assumed to demonstrate poor learning motivation and strategies, they flourish academically and achieve considerably higher levels than their Western counterparts in mathematics and science (Mehdizadeh & Scott, 2005). This suggests that Chinese students are not simply memorising through rote learning but understanding facts and how to apply them to ensure success.

The EAL teachers also reflected on the Chinese students’ lack of independent studies after class. In Chinese schools, teachers are expected to have in-depth knowledge and be able to teach and analyse all the information required of students, particularly concerning their exam topics. My own experience of learning in secondary school in China more than ten years ago was similar to the teachers’ focus on all that we had to learn in the exam topics for the Chinese National Examination for Universities and Colleges, known as Gaokao. For example, each subject teacher analysed and summarised all exam points for the students while we listened carefully and took notes. Subsequently, we performed several practice exercises based on these points. Thus, Chinese students may largely depend on teachers to teach them all the required knowledge rather than learning it independently after class. While studying in the UK school system, they are still used to depending on the teacher.

My English teachers in China explained everything to us. We never needed to express our opinions about a topic the teacher hadn’t taught. Teachers never asked questions before they finished explaining what we needed to know about the subject. However, it is different here. We are often asked to express opinions, even when the teacher hasn’t taught us anything about the subject. I am very anxious talking about something that I am not sure about. I prefer it when the teacher explains everything to me rather than discovering it by myself. (Kitty Lai)

EAL students’ perspectives

At the same time, Chinese students had different perceptions of their EAL teachers. All my participants were disappointed with their EAL lessons. Most thought the lessons were mistargeted because of the teaching materials and form of delivery. They complained that the EAL teachers did not have much information about IELTS and its required materials and levels and that they did not have detailed lesson plans.

Communicative but less organised

Students argued that the communicative approach was widely used in most EAL lessons, emphasising that the goal of language learning was communicative competence. Therefore, all communicative activities were arranged in class to allow students to speak as much as possible. However, students felt that most EAL lessons were less organised.

Kitty Lai complained that her EAL teachers only emphasised speaking skills and arranged too many games, which were not well organised or relevant to language points.

My EAL teachers always emphasise speaking competence, so they arrange many games, activities, and tasks for us to discuss. However, most of the activities are not well organised, and they are not that relevant to the language points. Sometimes, we play a game, but we don’t know why we should play it and what language gains we can achieve. For example, in a reading lesson, the primary aim was to teach us reading skills. However, we played games and participated in group and pair discussions. We discussed something not related to the reading passage until the end of the lesson. We wondered if it was a speaking lesson or a reading lesson. We were confused.

Vivi Wei and James Li also complained that EAL lessons were too communicative; they spoke too much during games or other activities, but most of the time, they failed to develop linguistic competence. They also argued that their teachers were not experienced in teaching English as a second or foreign language, the class had no system, and the class content was often disordered.

We sometimes watch TV shows in lessons; sometimes, we read newspapers in class, and sometimes we discuss some gossip … We are not taught systematically, and all the topics and tasks are set without a clear goal. (Vivi Wei)

Our EAL teachers always arrange games for us to practice speaking. I could learn nothing but speaking … They teach us too casually … (James Li)

The data show that most students thought the EAL classes were too communicative and less organised and claimed that the use of language was limited to specific phrases prescribed for narrow communicative situations. However, students must master reading, writing, listening, and speaking abilities; therefore, various teaching methods should be applied. The grammar-translation method, cognitive approach, communicative approach, and so on should be equally applied in EAL classes. Moreover, regardless of the approach adopted, lessons should be organised and taught systematically to develop students’ language skills.

Not targeted at improving IELTS scores

All the participants complained that the EAL lessons at MM School failed to improve their IELTS scores. They criticised that what the EAL teachers taught was unrelated to IELTS.

Kitty Lai wrote in her journal:

I have been learning EAL for two months. My EAL teachers use different irrelevant materials to teach us, but they aim to prepare us for the IELTS. Many of my classmates think the EAL lessons are useless because teachers are not serious about teaching, and some teachers do not even prepare the lessons well and have a carefree attitude towards education. The four components of IELTS, such as listening, speaking, reading and writing, are not evenly covered or practiced. I have to say our teachers are too free to teach whatever they want. I don’t really understand why we have to pay so much extra fees for these EAL lessons that do not serve the purpose and meet our linguistic needs – passing IELTS.

Bob Zhang and James Li shared their opinions during their interviews, complaining that the EAL lessons did not help them pass the IELTS and meet their university language requirements.

This course has nothing to do with IELTS. My teacher does not know what we need at all. All international students require an IELTS qualification for university entry. Most universities require 6.5, with some universities requiring a higher score than 7.0 in each unit. However, some of my EAL teachers have no idea how IELTS is tested. They do not teach us any topics in IELTS. (James Li)

80% of the IELTS lessons are about grammar and vocabulary. Only teaching grammar and vocabulary is not really enough to help us with the IELTS, which requires us to listen, read, write, and speak. There are many different topics in the exam. They should teach us from topic to topic. (Bob Zhang)

EAL teachers have been criticised for not being examination-oriented in their teaching goals. For example, most students commented, ‘What EAL teachers teach is not approximate! We have to pass the test.’ Exam-oriented systems profoundly influence Chinese students, as most are trained for upper-secondary or university entrance examinations (Hu, 2002). They may have been accustomed to the exam-oriented education environment, where teachers teach whatever comes up in the examinations, and the teachers’ responsibility is to enable students to pass various tests and examinations. Therefore, students are disappointed with the EAL lessons when their EAL teachers do not focus on IELTS.

Not targeted at improving academic English

Students said that EAL classes could not help them with their academic studies because the teachers taught them general English for daily communication instead of academic English for the subjects they were learning. This was because EAL teachers did not support them during mainstream lessons, and students might not have gained the necessary subject knowledge. However, EAL students’ progression to English should be seen as a process integral to their progress in all subjects, and students should be supported and monitored systematically in these different subjects.

I think the EAL lessons are better for improving everyday English but not enough for academic learning. EAL lessons do not help with our subject study because EAL teachers did not previously study physics, further mathematics or economics. They could only teach us some subject-related vocabularies, but that is not really enough to help us understand our subjects. I think the only way they might help us is to provide language support in the subject class. (James Li)

Recommendations

Developing classroom awareness

The findings show many misunderstandings and mismatches between teachers and students regarding teaching pedagogies and learning styles, which hindered students’ cultural, linguistic, and academic adaptation and adjustment to the UK. Educators need to be aware of students’ diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, as this means teaching them different learning styles. Teaching should be responsive to individual differences (Vygotsky, 1978), and without an awareness of international students’ cultural backgrounds, it will fail to meet students’ linguistic needs. In this study, Vivi Wei complained that EAL teachers’ methods were boring because they were unaware of the students’ linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

I understand that my EAL teacher would like to use more communicative teaching and a more student-centred approach, but the games that they do in the class are very boring. We are not primary school kids. They must understand our culture, ages, and interests when setting up the activities.

To best support students in the intercultural classroom, whether student-centred or teacher-centred approaches are adopted, teachers must consider learners’ linguistic and cultural backgrounds, age groups, and individual differences. The more awareness teachers have of their students’ differences, the more developed their learning strategies.

Developing bilingual pedagogies

The findings showed that the students’ bilingual pedagogies helped them improve their linguistic competencies. For example, they joined weekend IELTS lessons taught by bilingual Chinese teachers, which helped them improve their IELTS scores and meet university language requirements.

My Chinese IELTS teacher uses Chinese and English in teaching, which helps us learn the language points easily, especially regarding grammatical rules, language structures, exam techniques, etc. However, my EAL teachers in school actually don’t know why we make grammatical mistakes and how to help us improve because we don’t share the first language. They aren’t aware of our language differences. I think bilingual teaching is an effective way of teaching, which helped me achieve a 7.5 in IELTS. (Kitty Lai)

According to Vygotsky (1935), first and second language learning involves very different processes, as a child learns a first language (L1) only by being immersed in it. However, unlike the experience of learning L1, children learn a foreign language with conscious realisation and intention. Despite being immersed in an English environment, students take time to get along with the new environment and catch up with their target language. Students, especially those who arrive at later stages, find it challenging to achieve English proficiency, such as first-language speakers, particularly competency in English for academic purposes (Chen, 2004). Second-language learners have their first language in mind, learning a second language at a different cognitive and conceptual level from their knowledge of using their first language (Cook, 1996). Thus, a bilingual approach is more suitable for my target students, aged 14–18, who arrived in the UK. Bilingual teachers can better understand students’ weaknesses and difficulties in learning (Medgyes, 1994), and using L1 to aid students’ learning in the classroom can enhance their cognition of both language systems, thereby preventing language loss (Li, 2000). To best support teenage Chinese students in their transition to the UK educational system, schools must arrange bilingual teachers to help them inside and outside the classroom, especially during their first few months.

Limitations

This study did not aim to research Chinese students on a large scale based on surveys and questionnaires but to focus on a small group of students switching to the UK secondary education system to obtain in-depth knowledge about their experiences of cultural and linguistic adaptation. I believe that the experiences of teenage Chinese EAL students in this study are more than statistics. This group’s transcultural experiences have not been adequately documented, and their individual stories have not been noticed. This study addresses this gap in the literature. However, I acknowledge that this small-scale study cannot represent all international teenage Chinese students studying in UK independent schools, as each student’s circumstances may vary, and their motivation for studying in the UK and their adaptation issues may differ. Nevertheless, my study sheds light on intercultural adaptation issues and provides useful information for other teenage Chinese students considering transferring to the UK for GCSE/A-level courses.

Conclusion

The findings of this study show that inadequate speaking proficiency impedes participants’ attempts to make friends with their English peers. In addition, all participants considered the lack of English vocabulary for specific terms, definitions, and concepts as an obstacle to studying their core A-level subjects in English-medium classrooms. EAL lessons were arranged to improve students’ English proficiency in academic studies and to improve their IELTS scores. However, there were misunderstandings and mismatches between EAL teachers and Chinese EAL students. The EAL teachers complained about students’ passive participation and the lack of independent learning after class. However, all my participants were concerned that the school’s EAL classes did not meet their linguistic needs. In order to support teenage EAL students’ linguistic success, teachers need to develop classroom awareness and bilingual pedagogies.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Chunwen Su

Dr. Chunwen Su is a Visiting Research Fellow in the Centre for Language, Culture and Learning, within the Department of Educational Studies at Goldsmiths University of London. Her research areas are comparative education, bilingualism, intercultural communication, language, identity and culture.

She has been working as an IELTS/Chinese teacher in different independent schools, as well as being an education guardian for teenage Chinese EAL students in London since 2012. She holds a Master's degree in English Language Teaching (Studies and Methods) from the University of Warwick. Now she has completed her PhD in the Educational Studies Department at Goldsmiths, University of London.

Her PhD thesis tells the story of four teenage Chinese EAL students’ learning journey in an independent school in England. The purpose of the study was to understand, in depth, the issues of cultural, linguistic and academic adaptation they faced as teenage Chinese EAL students and find out how these students were supported in their learning journey.