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ABSTRACT
Photographs taken in 1978 by photographer Yàakov Shofar portray teenage boys from Katamon Tet, an impoverished Mizrahi Jerusalem neighbourhood. The boys playfully perform for the camera. In one photo, a boy pretends to choke his friend, who uses his body and face to express pain comically. Photographs from this session appeared in Shofar’s photography books Finding a Way Out (1981) and Born in Israel (1984), addressed as a socially engaged practice, reflecting the time's developments in photography. This study aims to reveal the politicization of the photographed youth following social and political occurrences in Katamon Tet, which are unmentioned in the books, and to show that these were pivotal in shaping the images.
Drawing on interviews and employing Tina Campt’s term, “The Black Gaze,” I suggest that the boys’ performance reacts to what Shofar represented – a socially privileged outsider. Basing my arguments on debates on photography and imagination, I underscore how the boys’ gestures confront the imagined gaze of the hegemony and reclaim mainstream stereotypes of Mizrahi masculinity. The theatricality of the boys’ performance is situated in relation to the Ohel Yosef community theatre in Katamon Tet, from which various forms of politicized Mizrahi protest emerged.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Tagg, “The Burden of Recollection,” 8–10; Watney, “Tunnel Vision,” 32–36; Harris, The New Art History; Dikovitskaya, Visual Culture, 48; Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure,” 6–18.
2 Blokland and Pelupessy, Unfixed: Photography and Postcolonial Perspectives; Hooks Black Looks; Phu and Brown, Feeling Photography; Steinbock, Ieven, and de Valck, Art and Activism Art; See discussion on historicity, Rogoff, “Studying Visual Culture,” 25, 29, 33–36 and Tagg, Disciplinary Frame, xxxii-xxxiii, 20, 74. fix bib
3 Olin, “Attentiveness and Visual Imagination.”; Morris-Reich and Olin, “Introduction,” of Photography and Imagination; Azoulay, “Photography,” and The Civil Contract; Keenan, “Mobilizing Shame.”; Shusterman, “Photography as Performative Process.”
4 Shofar, Finding a Way Out. [Hebrew];Yàakov Shofar, Born in Israel. [Hebrew].
5 Ibid.
6 Yossi Yona and Ishak Saporta “Pre-Professional Education,” 97, 100. [Hebrew]; Further discussion on the liminal location of Mizrahim in Israeli society can be found in Sasson-Levy and Shoshana, “‘Passing’ as (Non) Ethnic.”; Shenhav, The Arab Jews; Shohat, “Rupture and Return.”
7 Yehuda Swissa and Itzik Katzav, another boy who participated in Shofar’s photography project, assisted in identifying the photographed teenagers. Author’s interview with Katzav, April 4, 2021; Author’s interview with Shofar, June 17, 2019; Author’s interview with Swissa, April 19, 2021.
8 Author’s interview with Swissa, April 19, 2021.
9 Author’s interview with Swissa, April 19, 2021; Author’s interview with Katzav, April 4, 2021.
10 Shofar’s photographs from Musrara and Katamon were also exhibited in Yàakov Shofar: Born in Israel, a show curated by Noam Gal at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem in 2017. An elaborate discussion of Shofar’s Israel Museum exhibition, Born in Israel book, and the photographs taken in Musrara and their reception are addressed in the author’s forthcoming publication.
11 Shofar, “About the Photographs,” in Ya’akov Shofar, Born in Israel.
12 Yàakov. Finding a Way Out. [Hebrew].
13 Mizrahi artists and photographers have been exploring, since the 1980s, issues pertaining to Mizrahi identity and representation. Among them, Artist photographer Adi Nes’s series, Soldiers (1994-2000) represents homoerotic images of Mizrahi IDF soldiers that fracture the macho Mizrahi image and iconic imagery associated with national heroism and sacrifice; Moran Ovadia’s video art work Black Cat (2006) includes footage of real and staged interviews with members of the Black Panthers that narrate a fictive story of Ovadia as a Mizrahi female Black Panthers member. Thus, the work sheds light on the difficulty of constituting female Mizrahi role models within the dominant Ashkenazi culture and Mizrahi patriarchal society. Lir, “Black Female Panther, 334-336. [Hebrew].; Popescu, “The Promise, The Land.”
14 Mizrahi social unrest began most visibly during the 1959 Wadi Salib Rebellion in Haifa. Following a police shooting of a Wadi Salib resident, a group from the neighbourhood marched up the road of a better-off Ashkenazi neighbourhood while burning a blood stained Israeli flag and shouting that the state was discriminating them only because they were ‘Black.’Dahan Kalev, “Colorism in Israel,” 2106.
15 Dahan-Kalev, “Colorism in Israel,” 2104.
16 Tet is the 9th letter in the alphabet. Katamon Aleph, Bet, and Gimel were built in 1951. Katamon Daled, Vav, and Chet were built in 1952. Katamon Tet was built at the beginning of the 1960s. Yona, Voices from the Katamonim, 19–20, 25. [Hebrew].
17 Jacobson and Naor, “Between the Border of Despair”; Yona, Voices from the Katamonim, 21, 25–26, 61. [Hebrew].
18 Dahan-Kalev, “The Big Missed Opportunity.”
19 Most of the Black Panther leaders were North African and in their early twenties. Kochavi Shemesh, however, was born in Iraq. Bernstein, “The Black Panthers of Israel,” 164, 202, 244. [Hebrew].
20 The Black Panthers also protested against the state for offering spacious housing and benefits to Jewish immigrants from Western countries in the late 1960s. Dahan-Kalev, “The Big Missed Opportunity”; “The Goal of the Organisation,” Black Panther flyer in Sabag and Edri, ed. The Black Panthers. [Hebrew].
21 The Black Panthers’ major demonstrations attracted a large number of Mizrahi protesters. It is difficult, however, to assess how many Black Panther sympathisers from Mizrahi neighbourhoods became active supporters. Bernstein, “Conflict and Protest in Israeli Society,” 136–37; Bernstein, “The Black Panthers of Israel,” 203; Kaufman, “Panthers in the Institution,” 380. [Hebrew]; Lev and Shenhav, “The Formation of the Enemy on the Inside,” 135. [Hebrew].
22 An article on May 4, 1971, covering a Black Panther protest in Tel Aviv in Davar, the ruling party’s newspaper, reports that ‘hot-headed’ demonstrators climbed on top of buses and inflamed the crowd. The report added that the police officers identified criminals among the protesters. “The Black Panthers Block Dizengoff Street and are Scattered by the Police,” Davar 4 May 1971, 3. [Hebrew].
23 During the Black Panthers demonstration in 1971 outside of City Hall, the Mayor, Teddy Kollek, leaned out of his office window and yelled at the demonstrators, “Get off the grass, punks!”. When speaking about the Panthers, Prime Minister Golda Meir described them as “not nice”. In 1973, the Black Panthers entered politics officially but split between two political parties. The larger ‘Black Panthers List – Israeli Democrats’ headed by Charlie Biton ran for the Knesset in 1973 (but failed); In 1977, the list joined the communist-led Front- Hadash party, and Biton earned a seat in the Knesset. The “Blue and White- Black Panthers” list, headed by Edi Malka, failed to gain seats. Negri The Mizrahi Protest in Wadi Salib, 185. [Hebrew]; “The Black Panthers Israeli Democrats,” The Israel Democracy Institute,” Accessed September 12, 2020, https://www.idi.org.il/policy/parties-and-elections/parties/hapanterim-hashorim/. [Hebrew].
24 Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance, 70–71. [Hebrew]; Shalom Shitrit, “The Tent Movement,” 291. [Hebrew]; Further discussions on urban sphere as a site of politicization and protest in relation to Mizrahim and other marginalized communities can be found in Tzfadia and Yiftachel, “Between urban and national.”; Cohen and Margalit, “‘There are Really Two Cities Here’,”; Shamur “Melancholic citizenship.”
25 Yàakov. Finding a Way Out. [Hebrew]; Ya’akov Shofar, Born in Israel. [Hebrew].
26 Klorman-Eraqi, The Visual is Political, 2.
27 Tagg, The Burden of Representation, 2–5; Tagg, “Burden of Representation,” 10.
28 Since 1968, Shofar has been a Kibbutz member (Nir David, then Sdeh Yoav, and finally, En HaShoffet). Shofar biography, personal archive.
29 Motti Gigi, “Development Towns,” 34. [Hebrew].
30 Zdaka, Photographic Truth, 81–87, 235. [Hebrew]; Manor, Art in Zion.
31 Author’s interview with Shofar June 17, 2019. [Hebrew]; “Aharon Barnea interviewing Ya’akov Shofar – Photographer and artist” The Knesset Channel Broadcast Channel 99, June 7, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VP6g53L_fsk.[Hebrew].
32 Guilat, The ‘Lost’ Generation: Young Artists, 153–54; Barromi-Perlman, “Visions of Landscape Photography,” 574–77.
33 Ben-Choreen, “Emergence of Fine Art Photography,” 263; Klorman-Eraqi, The Visual is Political, 95.
34 Hanan Laskin, interview with author, October 19, 2020.
35 Zadka, Photographic Truth, 193.
36 Ibid. 181; ‘Hanan Laskin,’ Hamichlol Jewish Encyclopedia, accessed July, 8, 20020 https://www.hamichlol.org.il/%D7%97%D7%A0%D7%9F_%D7%9C%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%9F. [Hebrew].; The Bezalel Academy of Arts and Crafts in Jerusalem was established in 1906 by Boris Shatz and became hegemonic in the Jewish Israeli fine arts field. Peled and Herman Peled, The Religionization of Israeli Society, 180–81.
37 Zdaka, Photographic Truth, 181, 184–85, 238; The impact of American attitudes towards photography on Israeli photography can be viewed as part of an Americanization process that Israeli culture underwent, particularly since the late 1960s. Frankel, ‘What’s in a name?” 9–10.
38 Zdaka, Photographic Truth, 238; Shofar Interview with the author, June 17, 2019.
39 Bertrand, “A Tool for Social Change.”
40 Klorman-Eraqi, The Visual is Political, 157.
41 Author’s interview with Shofar, June 17, 2019; Zdaka, Photographic Truth, 238; Lev-Aladgem, Theatre in Co-Communities, 79–82.
42 The names of the other participants are unknown.
43 Davidson, East 100th Street; Davidson Brooklyn Gang; Lewis, “Leader of the Pack,” The New York Times, September 7, 2010.
44 Zdaka, Photographic Truth, 238; Lev-Aladgem, Theatre in Co-Communities, 79–82.
45 Author’s interview with Katzav, April 4, 2021.
46 Author’s correspondence with Shofar October 17, 2021.
47 Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance, 17, 61–64, 70–71, 92–93; Dahan-Kalev, “Vicki Shiran,” The Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women,” accessed July 23, 2022, https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/shiran-vicki; Shem-Tov, Israeli Theatre Mizrahi Jews, 20–21.
48 Sterlind, “Acting out of habits,” 71–72.
49 Shem-Tov, Israeli Theatre Mizrahi Jews, 20–21.
50 Lev Aladgem, Standing Front Stage, 80–81. [Hebrew]; Alfred also worked in Israel between 1968 and 1975. He directed several plays for the Haifa Municipality and formed the Khan Theatre Company in Jerusalem in 1972. Lerner, “The Khan Theatre Company,” 79–80.
51 Shitrit, “The Tent Movement,” 291. [Hebrew]; During the 1970s other theatre artists studied abroad and returned to Israel to change the local theatre culture. Among them Yossi Alfi who studied at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London and returned motivated to advance socially conscience theatre practices. Shem-Tov, Israeli Theatre Mizrahi Jews, 18.
52 Lev-Aladgem, “Counter Theatre – Symbolic Protest,” 117–18.
53 The Ohel Yosef actors were Shlomo Vazana, Moshe Selach, Yamin Mesika, Eli Chemo, Victor Hagag, Ya’akov Hagag, Gani Alfasi, Zion Alfasi, David Ohayun, Meir Ohayun, Machluf Hazan, and Shlomo Gabai. Meir Shitrit was a drummer and Danny Kelly was a guitar player. Lev-Aladgem “Yosef Yored Katamona, 1972,” Community plays in The Israeli Theatre Website, The Theatre Department at Tel Aviv University, accessed July 23, 2022, https://arts.tau.ac.il/theater/arc/YosefYoredKatamona. [Hebrew].
54 Author’s interview with Vazana, November 11, 2021; Other Ohel Yosef plays were Reunion (Pgishat Machzor), The Drop Out (Ha Nosher) Mechanical Youth (No’ar Mechani), Partly Cloudy (Me’unan Chelkit), and Good Jews (Yehudim Tovim). Yona, Voices from the Katamonim, 48; Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance, 72–73.
55 Lev-Aladgem, “Counter Theatre Symbolic Protest,” 117; Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance,72. [Hebrew].
56 Authors’ interview with Vazana, November 18, 2021; Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance,73; Lev-Aladgem, “Yosef Yored Katamona, 1972.”
57 Shitrit, “The Tent Movement,” 291; Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance, 80–81. [Hebrew].
58 Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance, 73; Lev Aladgem, “Counter Theatre – Symbolic Protest,”119. [Hebrew].
59 Author’s interview with Vazana, November 18, 2021.
60 Lerner, “The Khan Theatre Company,” 79-80; Crouch, “Shared Experience Theatre,” 21–22.
61 Lev Aladgem Standing Front Stage Resistance, 75; Yona, Voices from the Katamonim, 30, 44.
62 Lev Aladgem, “Yosef Yored Katamona 1972.”
63 Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage, 76.
64 Author’s interview with Vazana, November 18, 2021.
65 Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance,76. [Hebrew].
66 Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance, 76, cites Naomi Sheldan, “Katamon’s Own Joseph,” Jerusalem Post, September 21, 1973, and Moti Averbuch, “Fringe Theatre,” Kol ha Am October 8, 1973.
67 Lev-Aladgem, “Yosef Yored Katamona 1972.”
68 Ilana Yona’s interview with Yamin Masika in Yona, Voices from the Katamonim, 184; Lev-Aladgem, “Yosef Yored Katamona 1972.”
69 Author’s interview with Vazana, November 18, 2021; Shem-Tov, Israeli Theatre Mizrahi Jews, 24; Vazana Interview in Yona, Voices from Katamonim, 173; Ultimately, Arye Yizhak became closer to the Jewish religion, repented, and retreated from the theatre world. Author’s interview with Vazana; Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance,76.
70 Authors interview with Vazana, November 18, 2021; Yona, Voices from the Katamonim, 44.
71 Lev-Aladgem, “Counter Theatre Symbolic Protest,” 114; Lev-Aladgem, Standing Front Stage Resistance, 71; Vazana interview in Yona Voices from the Katamonim, 173.
72 Chiefly Sa’adia Marciano and Charlie Biton cultivated friendships with Matzpen members, which initially began through obtaining and smoking Hashish in downtown hangouts. These meeting led to conversations about politics and society. Maztpen members among them Shimshon Wigoder, introduced them to ideas of political organization. Bernstein, “The Black Panthers of Israel,” 151–152; Frankel, “What’s in a name?” 11; Bernstein, “The Black Panthers of Israel,” 157, 258–59, 261.
73 Mesika Interview in Yona, Voices from Katamonim, 183–84.
74 Gili Itkowitz, “Yamim Mesika and Yerami Kadosh are Convinced that their Neighborhood Films Represent Social Protest,” Ha’aretz, July 10, 2011, https://www.haaretz.co.il/gallery/2011-07-10/ty-article/0000017f-e2ab-d804-ad7f-f3fb675c0000 The Mizrahi Democratic Rainbow was formed in 1995 by a group of Mizrahi intellectuals who strived for justice in the allocation of the state resources, such as land held by the Kibbutzim and other forms of agricultural settlements populated by Ashkenazi Jews. Shalom Shitrit The Mizrahi Struggle in Israel, 186. Author’s interview with Vazana, November 18, 2021; Yona, Voices from the Katamonim, 173.
75 Authors interview with Yehuda Swissa, April 19, 2021.
76 Yona, Voices from Katamonim, 46–47.
77 Ohel Yosef neighbourhood project, for example, included assisting residents to claim rights from municipality and government institutions: distributing food and basic condiments to the needy, setting up a knitting and crochet factory that employed neighbourhood women, and neighbourhood babysitting and laundry services. Yona, Voices from the Katamonin, 48, 173; Author’s interview with Shlomo Vazana, November 18, 2021.
78 According to Ohel Yosef member Shlomo Hason, they initially searched for positive forms of protests that would benefit the neighbourhood directly such as, founding self-help services, deterring youth from criminal activity, encouraging local creativity, and fostering local leadership. Yona, Voices from the Katamonim, 44, 46–47.
79 Shitrit, “The Tent Movement,”122–23; Authors interview with Shlomo Vazana, November 18, 2021.
80 Author’s correspondence with Vazana May 3, 2022.
81 Yona, Voices from the Katamonim, 174.
82 Lev-Aladgem, “Counter Theatre Symbolic Protest,” 128. In 1981, the Tent Movement ran as an official party for the Knesset but was disbanded after it failed to attain a seat. After the elections, most of the Tent Movement’s former members joined the Labor party and entered official politics. Sami Shitrit, “The Tent Movement,” 291, 297; Authors interview with Vazana November 18, 2021.
83 Yona, Voices from the Katamonim, 28–29.
84 Morris-Reich and Olin, “Introduction,” of Photography and Imagination, ixv.
85 Olin, “Attentiveness and Visual Imagination,” 120.; Photography theorist Ariella Azoulay similarly suggests that photography is constituted by a chain of encounters between the camera, photographer, photographed subjects and spectators who fulfill acts of watching or showing that complicate and potentially politicize photographic meaning. Azoulay, The Civil Contract, 138, 315.
86 Yosef, Beyond Flesh, 7–8, 91.
87 Peleg, “From Black to White,” 131.
88 Campt, A Black Gaze, 32.
89 Lawson’s portrayal of the men’s gold jewellery references the manner in which West African chiefs, kings in the Asante Kingdom, and young men in contemporary Black hip-hop culture wear gold. In so doing, Lawson sets out to contribute to the shaping of a contemporary Black aesthetic in art photography. Fi Churchman, “Black Gold.”
90 Campt, A Black Gaze, 28.
91 Nelson, “Issues of Intimacy”; DuBois Shaw, “The Many Problems.”
92 Hooks, Black Looks, 115–16; Campt, A Black Gaze, 248.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Na’ama Klorman-Eraqi
Na'ama Klorman-Eraqi is a faculty member in the Department of Art History at the University of Haifa. She published the book The Visual Is Political: Feminist Photography and Countercultural Activity in 1970s Britain (Rutgers University Press, 2019), and articles in journals such as Feminist Media Studies, Third Text, and Photographies.