Soft and Hard Power in India's Strategy Toward Southeast Asia

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size

Notes

 The author would like to thank Professor Rajesh Basrur, Mahesh Shankar, and an anonymous referee for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this article.

1. See Ashley J. Tellis, “China and India in Asia,” in Francine R. Frankel and Harry Harding, eds., The India-China Relationship: Rivalry and Engagement (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 162–167. See also, Tellis, “US and Indian Interests in India's Extended Neighbourhood,” in Alyssa Ayres and C. Raja Mohan, eds., Power Realignments in Asia: China, India, and the United States (New Delhi: Sage, 2009), pp. 231–234.

2. Soft power and hard power are defined in the next section.

3. See Giulio M. Gallarotti, “Soft Power: What it is, Why it's Important, and the Conditions for its Effective Use,” Journal of Political Power Vol. 4, No. 1 (2011), p. 28.

4. Gallarotti, “Soft Power” (see note 3 above), pp. 37–39.

5. Gallarotti, Cosmopolitan Power in International Relations: A Synthesis of Realism, Neoliberalism, and Constructivism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 5.

6. See, for example, Gallarottii, Cosmopolitan Power (see note 5 above), pp.180–225.

7. Colin S. Gray, Hard Power and Soft Power: The Utility of Military Force as an Instrument of Policy in the 21st Century (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute Monograph, U.S. Army War College, April 2011), p. 21, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/.

8. Pranab Mukherjee Inaugurates International Seminar on Aerospace Power: Calls for Strengthening of International Legal Regime for the Peaceful Use of Outer Space (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, February 4, 2007), http://pib.nic.in/.

9. The phrase “soft empowerment” means benefits produced by soft power. See Gallarotti, Cosmopolitan Power (note 5).

10. See Shashi Tharoor, Pax Indica: India and the World of the 21st century (New Delhi: Penguine, 2012), pp. 276–312; Nicolas Blarel, “India's Soft Power: From Potential to Reality?,” in Nicholas Kitchen, ed., India: The Next Superpower?, IDEAS special report, SR010 (London: LSE IDEAS, London School of Economics and Political Science, 2012), pp. 28–33; Christian Wagner, “India's Soft Power: Prospects and Limitations,” India Quarterly Vol. 66, No. 4 (2010), pp. 333–342; John Lee, Unrealised Potential: India's “Soft Power” Ambition in Asia (St. Leonard's, NSW: Centre for Independent Studies, 2010); Jacques E. C. Hymans, “India's Soft Power and Vulnerability,” India Review Vol. 8, No. 3(2009), pp. 234– 265.

11. Steven Lukes, “Power and the Battle for Hearts and Minds: On the Bluntness of Soft Power,” in Felix Berenskoetter and M. J. Williams, eds., Power in World Politics (London: Routledge, 2007), p. 83.

12. See, for details, David A. Baldwin, “Power and International Relations,” in Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse and Beth A. Simmons, eds., Handbook of International Relations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013), pp. 273–297.

13. Ibid.

14. Joseph S. Nye, The Future of Power (New York: Public Affairs, 2011), p. 8.

15. See Baldwin, “Power and International Relations” (note 12), p. 277.

16. For the discussion on the importance of ‘contexts’ in understanding power, see Baldwin, “Power Analysis and World Politics: New Trends versus Old Tendencies,” World Politics Vol. 31, No. 2 (January 1979), pp. 161–194.

17. Nye, The Future of Power (see note 14), p. 7.

18. See, for details, Nye, The Future of Power (note 14), pp. 20–22 and pp. 81–109.

19. Ibid., p. 20.

20. Ibid., p. 21.

21. Positive rather than negative attraction causes soft power. See ibid., p. 92.

22. Ibid., pp. 92–109; Alexander L. Vuving, “How Soft Power Works” (paper presented at the panel “Soft Power and Smart Power,” American Political Science Association annual meeting, Toronto, September 3, 2009), pp. 2–20, http://apcss.org/.

23. Donn Byrne, Gerald L. Clore, and George Smeaton, “The Attraction Hypothesis: Do Similar Attitudes Affect Anything?,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Vol. 51, No.6 (December 1986), pp. 1167–170.

24. See Nye, The Future of Power (note 14), p. 93.

25. Gallarotti, “Soft Power” (see note 3 above), pp. 30–33.; Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), pp. 60–68; Vuving, “How Soft Power Works” (see note 22 above), pp. 14–16.

26. Nye, The Future of Power (see note 14), p. 11; Vuving, “How Soft Power Works” (see note 22 above), p. 15.

27. Gallarotti, “Soft Power” (see note 3 above), p. 30; Nye, Soft Power (see note 25), p. 11 and pp. 44–55; Vuving, “How Soft Power Works” (see note 22 above), p. 13.

28. Gallarotti, “Soft Power” (see note 3 above), p. 30; Nye, Soft Power (see note 25), pp.55–60; Vuving, “How Soft Power Works” (see note 22 above), p. 15.

29. Nye, The Future of Power (see note 14), pp. 51–80; Gallarotti, “Soft Power” (see note 3 above), pp. 33–35; Vuving, “How Soft Power Works” (see note 22 above), p. 9 and p. 14.

30. For relationship between military and soft power, see Nye, The Future of Power (see note 14), pp. 25–49; Vuving, “How Soft Power Works” (see note 22 above), p. 10 and p. 15; Gallarotti, “Soft Power” (see note 3 above), pp. 33–35.

31. Nye, Future of Power (see note 14), p. 21; Gallarotti, “Soft Power” (see note 3 above), pp. 33–35.

32. See Nye, Future of Power (see note 14), p. 94–109.

33. Manmohan Singh, “PM's address at the Combined Commanders Conference,” October 26, 2004, http://pmindia.nic.in/.

34. International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), “Chapter Six: Asia,” The Military Balance Vol. 113, Issue 1 (2013), p. 297.

35. Sanjay Kumar, “Sky High Dreams: Indian Air force celebrated its 79th Anniversary with a Plethora of Announcements,” Force, May 2012, http://www.forceindia.net/NovFeatureReport3.aspx.

36. Lok Sabha Secretariat, Demands for Grants (2012–2013) (New Delhi: Fifteenth Report Standing Committee on Defence, April 2012), p. 70.

37. Vinay Kumar, “Terror Threats Factored into Navy's Preparations,” The Hindu, August 8, 2012, http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/terror-threats-factored-into-navys-preparations/article3739695.ece

38. Laxman K Behera, India's Defence Budget 2013–14: A Bumpy Road Ahead (New Delhi: Institute of Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA) Comment, March 4, 2013), http://www.idsa.in/.

39. See Sunil Dasgupta, “The Fate of India's Strategic Restraint,” Current History Vol. 111, No. 744 (April 2012), pp. 129–134.

40. India Submits Anti-Piracy Proposals at the UN to Build Consensu: Antony (New Delhi: Ministry of Defence, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, February 27, 2012), http://pib.nic.in/.

41. “28 Somali Pirates Identified,” The Times of India, April 5, 2013, http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-04-05/mumbai/38306198_1_somali-pirates-vega-5-and-al-murtuza-70-hostages

42. “India Well-Positioned to Become Net Security Provider in Our Region and Beyond: PM,” The Hindu Business Line, May 23, 2013, http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/india-wellpositioned-to-become-net-security-provider-in-our-region-and-beyond-pm/article4742174.ece

43. See Karthika Sasikumar, “India's Emergence as a ‘Responsible’ Nuclear Power,” International Journal Vol. 62, No. 4 (2007), pp. 825–844.

44. Jaswant Singh, “Against Nuclear Apartheid,” Foreign Affairs Vol. 77, No. 5 (September/October 1998), p. 48.

45. K. Subrahmanyam, “Nuclear India in Global Politics,” World Affairs Vol. 2, No. 3 (July–September 1998), pp. 22–23.

46. C. Raja Mohan, From Isolation to Partnership: The Evolution of India's Military Diplomacy (Singapore: Institute of South Asian Studies Working Paper, No. 144, February 20, 2012), p. 9, http://www.isas.nus.edu.sg/.

47. Integrated Headquarters, Ministry of Defence (Navy), INBR-8, Indian Maritime Doctrine, 2009, pp. 105–122.

48. See Rahul Roy-Choudhry, India's Maritime Security (New Delhi: Knowledge World and Institute of Defence Studies and Analysis, 2000), p. 178; G.V.C. Naidu, “Whither the Look East Policy: India and Southeast Asia,” Strategic Analysis Vol. 28, No. 2 (April–June 2004), pp. 338–341; Isabelle Saint-Mézard, Eastward Bound: India's New Positioning in Asia (New Delhi: Manohar, 2005), pp. 292–294 and pp. 339–351.

49. Ministry of Defence, Government of India, Annual Reports, 1999–2012, http://mod.nic.in/.

50. See Rajat Pandit, “India and Thailand Kick off their Joint Combat Exercise, Maitree, at the Sikh Regimental Center in Ramgarh, with the Focus Being on Counter-insurgency Operations in Urban and Rural Terrain,” Times of India, September 11, 2012, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/India-and-Thailand-kick-off-their-joint-combat-exercise-Maitree-at-the-Sikh-Regimental-Centre-in-Ramgarh-with-the-focus-being-on-counter-insurgency-operations-in-urban-and-rural-terrain-/articleshow/16350726.cms; Ministry of Defence, Government of India, Annual Report 2011–2012, http://mod.nic.in/; Vivek Raghuvanshi, “1st Indian-Malaysian Exercise Ends This Week,” DefenseNews, October 22, 2012, http://www.defensenews.com/article/20121022/DEFREG03/310220005/1st-Indian-Malaysian-Exercise-Ends-Week; Emerging Triumphant out of Chakravyuh, Indian and Indonesian Troops Train together to Fight Terror (New Delhi: Ministry of Defence, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, March 1, 2012); Exercise Bold Kurukshetra, March 27, 2012, http://indianarmy.nic.in/.

51. See Brian K. Hedrick, India's Strategic Defense Transformation: Expanding Global Relationships (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, November 2009), pp. 31–33, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/; India and Vietnam announce measures to boost Defence Cooperation (New Delhi: Ministry of Defence, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, December 17, 2007), http://pib.nic.in/; Pankaj Kumar Jha, “India's Defence Diplomacy in Southeast Asia,” Journal of Defence Studies Vol. 5, No 1 (January 2011), pp. 47–63, http://idsa.in/; Ministry of Defence, Government of India, Annual Reports 1999–2012,http://mod.nic.in/.

52. Jha, “India's Defence Diplomacy in Southeast Asia” (see note 51 above).

53. Ministry of Defence, Government of India, Annual Report 2006–2007, p. 32, http://mod.nic.in/.

54. Indian Navy Ships Despatched for Disaster Relief Operations—Myanmar (New Delhi: Ministry of Defence Press Information Bureau, Government of India, May 5, 2008), http://pib.nic.in/; Indian Air Force aircraft to carry relief material to ‘Nargis’ affected Myanmar (New Delhi: Ministry of Defence, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, May 6, 2008), http://pib.nic.in/; Indian Ships Arrives at Myanmar—First Ships to Arrive with Relief Supplies (New Delhi: Ministry of Defence, Press Information Bureau, May 7, 2008), http://pib.nic.in/; Operation Sahayata: IAF IL-76 Airlifts more Relief to Myanmar (New Delhi: Ministry of Defence, Press Information Bureau, May 12, 2008), http://pib.nic.in/.

55. India's Contribution to UN Peacekeeping Missions, http://www.un.int/india/.

56. Text of Raksha Mantri Shri Pranab Mukherjee's address at Shangri-La Dilogue in Singapore (New Delhi: Ministry of Defence, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, June 3, 2006), http://pib.nic.in/.

57. Interventions by External Affairs Minister Shri Pranab Mukherjee at 14^th ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) meeting in Manila (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, August 3, 2007), http://pib.nic.in/.

58. See Briefs on India and Regional Organisations: ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, August 2012), http://www.mea.gov.in/.

59. Indian Maritime Doctrine (see note 47), p. 105.

60. Ibid.,p. 109.

61. Speech by Ambassador Shyam Saran at Flag Off of INS Sudarshini, September 15, 2012, http://www.aseanindia.com/.

62. See Ministry of Defense, Government of India, Annual Reports 2001–2012, http://mod.nic.in/.

63. Sunanda K. Datta-Ray, Looking East to Look West: Lee Kuan Yew's Mission of India (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009), pp. 269–271.

64. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh defended the FTA with ASEAN on geopolitical and economic grounds. See Sanjaya Baru, “Why India-ASEAN FTA will Pay Off,” Business Today, September 20, 2009, http://businesstoday.intoday.in/story/why-indiaasean-fta-will-pay-off/1/4622.html

65. Opening Statement by Prime Minister at Plenary Session of India-ASEAN Commemorative Summit (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, December 20, 2012), http://www.mea.gov.in/.

66. Statement by Prime Minister at the 9th ASEAN-India Summit (New Delhi: Prime Minister's Office, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, November 19, 2011), http://pib.nic.in/.

67. See “Executive Summary,” in ASEAN-India Connectivity Report: India Country Study (New Delhi: Research and Information System for Developing Countries, 2012), http://ris.org.in/.

68. See Joint Ministerial Statement on the 6th Mekong Ganga Cooperation Meeting (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, September 4, 2012), http://mea.gov.in/; Vision Statement ASEAN India Commemorative Summit, December 21, 2012, http://www.asean.org/; Joint Statement on the Occasion of the Visit of Prime Minister of India Dr Manmohan Singh to Myanmar (New Delhi: Prime Minister's Office, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, May 28, 2012), http://pib.nic.in/; “Information for Media,” in Prime Minister Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee's Visit to Singapore & Cambodia 7–11 April 2002, (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, April 7, 2002), http://www.mea.gov.in/; Lao-India Joint Press Statement (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, November 8, 2002), http://www.mea.gov.in/.

69. Statement by Prime Minister (see note 66 above).

70. Vision Statement ASEAN India Commemorative Summit (see note 68 above).

71. Speech by External Affairs Minister Shri Yashwant Sinha at Harvard University (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, September 29, 2003), http://www.mea.gov.in/; Statement by PM at the 6th East Asia Summit Plenary Session (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, November 19, 2011), http://www.mea.gov.in/.

72. Statement by the Prime Minister at Plenary Session of 7th East Asia Summit (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, November 20, 2012), http://mea.gov.in/.

73. Shyam Saran, “Time for Just Looking East Over,” Business Standard, November 17, 2010, http://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/shyam-saran-time-for-just-looking-east-over-110111700028_1.html

74. I. K. Gurjal, “Statement by H.E. Mr. Inder Kumar Gujral, Minister of External Affairs of India at the Meeting between ASEAN and Dialogue Partners,” in Twenty-ninth ASEAN Ministerial Meeting (AMM), Post Ministerial Conferences with Dialogue Partners (PMC), and Third ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) (Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, 1996), p. 124; Jaswant Singh, Minister of External Affairs, India and ASEAN: Security Paradigm for AD 2000, Distinguished Public lecture (Singapore: Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies, June 2, 2000); Defence Minister, Shri Pranab Mukherjee, Concluding Address at the 7th Asian Security Conference (New Delhi: Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, January 29, 2005), http://www.idsa.in/.

75. Yuen Foong Khong, “Coping with Strategic Uncertainty: Institutions and Soft Balancing in ASEAN's Post-Cold War Strategy,” in J. J. Suh, Peter J. Katzenstein, and Allen Carlson, eds., Rethinking Security in East Asia: Identity, Power and Efficiency (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 172–208.

76. See P. V. Narasimha Rao, India and the Asia-Pacific: Forging a New Relationship, Lecture (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1994), pp. 10–11; S. Tsering Bhalla, “PM Goh Sees New Era of Warm, Close Relations with India,” Straits Times, February 28, 1992, http://global.factiva.com.

77. “Joint Statement of the First ASEAN-India Summit,” November 5, 2002, http://www.asean.org/.

78. India first supported the status of the SEANWFZ during the fifth ARF summit and reiterated its support later. See “Statement by H.E. Mr. Sharad Pawar, Member of Parliament, Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha at the General Debate of the First Committee at New York,” Foreign Affairs Record Vol. XLIV, No. 10 (October 1998), p. 159, http://mealib.nic.in/; “Suo Moto statement by Prime Minister Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee in Lok Sabha/Rajya Sabha,” Foreign Affairs Record Vol. XLIV, No. 8 (August 1998), p. 74, http://mealib.nic.in/; Singh, India and ASEAN: Security Paradigm for AD 2000 (note 74 above).

79. Vision Statement ASEAN India Commemorative Summit (see note 68 above).

80. External Affairs Minister's Intervention on ‘Exchange of views on Regional and International Issues’ at the 19th ARF Ministerial Meeting (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, July 12, 2012), http://www.mea.gov.in/.

81. Vision Statement ASEAN India Commemorative Summit (see note 68 above).

82. Briefs on India and Regional Organisations: ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) (see note 58 above).

83. Benoy Kumar Sarkar, Chinese Religion Through Hindu Eyes: A Study in the Tendencies of Asiatic Mentality (Shanghai: The Commercial Press, Ltd., 1916), p. 256

84. T. A. Keenleyside, “Nationalist Indian Attitudes Towards Asia: A Troublesome Legacy for Post-Independence Indian Foreign Policy,” Pacific Affairs Vol. 55, No. 2 (Summer, 1982), p. 227.

85. Vision Statement ASEAN India Commemorative Summit (see note 68 above).

86. For details, visit ICCR, India, http://www.iccrindia.net/.

87. Consulate General of India, Atlanta, Initiatives for Overseas Indians, http://www.indianconsulateatlanta.org.

88. For the number of overseas Indians in Southeast Asia as of May, 2012, see India and its Diaspora (New Delhi: The Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, Government of India, 2012), http://moia.gov.in/.

89. Richard Fontaine and Daniel Twining, “India's Arab Spring Opportunity,” The Diplomat, August 24, 2011, http://thediplomat.com/2011/08/24/india%E2%80%99s-arab-spring-opportunity/

90. ^“PM's speech at the HT Leadership Initiative Conference,” November 5, 2004, via http://pmindia.nic.in/.

91. For the text of the MoU, see International Cooperation (New Delhi: Election Commission of India), http://eci.nic.in/eci_mani1/mou/indonesia.pdf.

92. See International Training Program in Legislative Drafting (New Delhi: Bureau of Parliamentary Studies and Training, Lok Sabha Secretariat, Parliament of India), http://164.100.47.210/bpstnew/legislativedrafting.aspx; and Parliamentary Internship Programme (PIP) (New Delhi: Bureau of Parliamentary Studies and Training, Lok Sabha Secretariat, Parliament of India), http://164.100.47.210/bpstnew/parliamentintern.aspx

93. Kripa Sridharan, “India and Southeast Asia in the 1990s,” Southeast Asian Affairs (1997), p. 51. Singapore first proposed India's admission as a sectoral dialogue partner. See V. Jayanth, “The Political Dimensions,” Seminar Vol. 487 (March 2000), http://www.india-seminar.com/2000/487/487%20jayanth.htm.

94. See “Prime Minister's 1993 National Day Message,” August 8, 1993, and “National Day Rally Address by Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong,” August 15, 1993, http://www.nas.gov.sg/.

95. Kripa Sridharan, The ASEAN Region in India's Foreign Policy (Aldershot, England: Dartmouth, 1996), pp. 177–178.

96. Sunanda K. Datta-Ray, “India Building Bridges of Ties in Neighbourhood,” Straits Times, February 10, 1994, http://www.global.factiva.com.

97. Hamish McDonald, “Joining Up: India Looks to Strengthen Ties with Asia,” Far Eastern Economic Review Vol. 157, No. 38 (September 1994), p. 17.

98. Sunanda K. Datta-Ray, “Rao Sees S'pore as Gateway to Asean, East Asia and Apec,” Straits Times, January 22, 1994, http://www.global.factiva.com; “Speech by Prime Minister, Mr. Goh Chok Tong, at the Dinner Hosted in Honour of His Excellency Mr. Narasimha Rao, Prime Minister of the Republic of India,” September 8, 1994, http://www.nas.gov.sg/.

99. McDonald, “Joining Up” (see note 97 above).

100. Quoted in Paul H. Kreisberg, South Asia and the Indian Ocean: The Strategic Environment, 1995–2010 (Alexandria, VA: Center for Naval Analyses, 1996), p. 33.

101. Rodolfo C. Severino, Southeast Asia in Search of an ASEAN Community: Insights from the Former ASEAN Secretary-General (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2006), p. 291.

102. “New Partnership Forged with India,” The Straits Times, July 25, 1996, www.lexisnexis.com.

103. Michael Leifer, Singapore's Foreign Policy: Coping With Vulnerability (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 120.

104. Rodolfo C. Severino, Secretary-General of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, “ASEAN and India– A Partnership For Our Time” (India-ASEAN Eminent Persons Lecture, Research and Information System for the Non-Aligned and Other Developing Countries, January 9, 2001), http://www.asean.org/.

105. Saint-Mezard, Eastward Bound (see note 48 above), pp. 366–68.

106. See Datta-Ray, Looking East to Look West (see note 63 above), p. 268 and pp. 288–289.

107. “New Partnership Forged with India” (see note 102 above).

108. “RI Prepares ARF Membership Criteria,” Jakarta Post, March 22, 1996, https://global.factiva.com.

109. See Saint-Mezard, Eastward Bound (see note 48 above), p. 368.

110. See C. Raja Mohan, “India's Gains from the ARF Meet,” The Hindu, July 29, 1998, https://global.factiva.com; and Deepa M. Ollapally, “India and the New “Asian” Balance of Power,” Strategic Analysis Vol. XXII, No.4 (July 1998), pp. 515–526.

111. Sunanda K. Datta-Ray, “India Signalling it is Ready to Play a Bigger Role in Region,” Straits Times, July 31, 1996, https://global.factiva.com.

112. See Saint-Mezard, Eastward Bound (see note 48 above), p. 405.

113. Rodolfo Severino, The ASEAN Regional Forum (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009), p. 81.

114. “Suo Moto statement by Prime Minister Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee“ (see note 78 above), p. 74.

115. See “Joint Communique, The 31st ASEAN Ministerial Meeting (AMM),” July 24–25, 1998, http://www.asean.org/.

116. Mohan, “India's Gains from the ARF Meet” (see note 110 above).

117. Soubanh Srithirath, “ASEAN-Indian Partnership towards the Next Millennium,” in India-ASEAN Partnership in an Era of Globalization: Reflections by Eminent Persons (New Delhi: Research and Information System for the Non-Aligned and Other Developing Countries, 2002), p. 118.

118. “Chairman's Statement of the 9th Meeting of the ASEAN Regional Forum,” July 31, 2002, http://aseanregionalforum.asean.org/; “Joint Communiqué of the 36th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting,” June 16–17, 2003, http://www.asean.org/.

119. “Speech by President S. R. Nathan at the State Banquet in Honour of the President of India He Mr. Kocheril Raman Narayanan,” November 10, 2000; and “Opening Remarks by Professor S Jayakumar,” Minister For Foreign Affairs, at The Distinguished Public Lecture Organised By The Institute Of Defence And Strategic Studies, June 2, 2000, http://www.nas.gov.sg/.

120. Remarks by DPM Lee Hsien Loong on ‘The Future of Asian Economies (Davos: World Economic Forum, January 24, 2003), http://www.mfa.gov.sg/.

121. “Press Statement by the Chairperson of The ASEAN + China Summit, The ASEAN + Japan Summit, The ASEAN + Republic Of Korea Summit, and The ASEAN + India Summit,” October 8, 2003, http://www.asean.org/.

122. R. M. Marty M. Natalegawa, Foreign Minister of the Republic of Indonesia, Indonesian View of the World, (New Delhi: Indian Council of World Affairs, July 27, 2012), http://www.icwa.in/.

123. R.M. Marty M. Natalegawa, “ASEAN+3 versus the East Asia Summit,” The Jakarta Post, February 8, 2005, http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2005/02/08/asean3-versus-east-asia-summit.html

124. “Lee Kuan Yew Reflects,” Time Magazine Vol. 166, No. 24 (December 12, 2005), p. 42.

125. Datta-Ray, Looking East to Look West (see note 63 above), p. 290.

126. See “Speech by Mr. Goh Chok Tong, Senior Minister, At Opening Session of the 4th Asia-Pacific Round Table,” February 6, 2006, http://www.nas.gov.sg/.

127. Amit Baruah, “India and China are key to peace in Asia,” The Hindu, January 24, 2007, http://www.hindu.com/2007/01/24/stories/2007012404631300.htm

128. Vision Statement ASEAN India Commemorative Summit (see note 68 above).

129. “Special Address by Emeritus Senior Minister Goh Chok Tong at the Confederation of Indian Industries Summit 2012,” January 12, 2012, http://www.mfa.gov.sg/.

130. “Keynote Address by Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Masagos Zulkifli at the Inaugural Session of the Delhi Dialogue IV,” February 13, 2012, http://www.mfa.gov.sg/.

131. See Ivan Krastev and Mark Leonard, New World Order: The Balance of Soft Power and the Rise of Herbivorous Powers (London: The European Council of Foreign Relations, October 24, 2007), p. 2, http://ecfr.eu/.

132. “Toast By Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at the Official Dinner Hosted By His Excellency Dr Manmohan Singh,” July 11, 2012, http://www.pmo.gov.sg/.

133. Joint Statement on the Framework for the India-Malaysia Strategic Partnership (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, October 27, 2010), http://www.mea.gov.in/.

134. See “Joint Statement during the visit of Chairman, State Peace and Development Council of Myanmar,” July 27, 2010, http://www.mea.gov.in/; “Joint Statement on the State Visit of Prime Minister of Thailand, April 5, 2011, http://www.mea.gov.in/.

135. Antony on A Two-Day official visit to Myanmar (New Delhi: Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Defence, January 21, 2013), http://pib.nic.in/.

136. “Joint Statement on the State Visit of Prime Minister of Thailand” (see note 136 above),

137. Vibhanshu Shekhar, “India-Indonesia Relations: Overview,” IPCS Special Report Vol. 38 (March 2007), p. 2, http://www.ipcs.org/.

138. Carlyle A. Thayer, “The Rise of China and India: Challenging or Reinforcing Southeast Asia's Autonomy?,” in Ashley J. Tellis, Travis Tanner, and Jessica Keough, eds., Asia Responds to its Rising Powers China and India, Strategic Asia 2011–12 (Seattle and Washington DC: National Bureau of Asian Research, 2011), p. 340.

139. Vision Statement ASEAN India Commemorative Summit (see note 68 above).

140. Vikram Nehru, Six Reasons to Look East (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February 26, 2013), http://carnegieendowment.org/.

141. See “Chairman's Statement of the Fourth ASEAN-India Summit,” December 13, 2005, http://www.asean.org/; P. S. Suryanarayana, “India and the East: Time for a Reality Check,” The Hindu, December 15, 2010, http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/india-and-the-east-time-for-a-reality-check/article954579.ece; and “India, ASEAN Form Strategic Partnership,” Interview with Ian Storey, ABC Radio Australia, December 21, 2012, http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/.

142. Vision Statement ASEAN India Commemorative Summit (see note 68 above).

143. All the above data have been calculated by the author from the data base of CEIC WebCDM, http://venus.wis.ntu.edu.sg/.

144. “Joint Press Conference by Disinvestments Minister Arun Shourie and Minister of Trade and Industry George Yeo,” April 8, 2002, http://www.outlookindia.com/.

145. “Transcript of Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong's Keynote Address at the Business Summit Hosted by the Confederation of Indian Industry, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry and Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India, India, July 11, 2012, http://www.mfa.gov.sg/

146. Saint-Mézard, Eastward Bound (see note 48 above), p. 99.

147. Calculated by the author from CEIC WebCDM, http://venus.wis.ntu.edu.sg/.

148. Above data have been collected from the data base of CEIC WebCDM, http://venus.wis.ntu.edu.sg/.

149. India ASEAN Free Trade Agreements: Implications for India's Economy, A Deloitte-FICCI White Paper, March 2011, pp. 7–8, http://www.deloitte.com/in.

150. Chandrima Sikdar and Biswajit Nag, Impact of India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement: A Cross-Country Analysis Using Applied General Equilibrium Modeling (Asia-Pacific Research and Training Network on Trade, Working Paper Series, No 107, November 2011), p. 3, http://www.unescap.org/.

151. Nehru, Six Reasons to Look East (see note 140 above).

152. ^“Joint Statement: Vision for the India-Indonesia New Strategic Partnership over the Coming Decade,” January 25, 2011, http://mea.gov.in/.

153. Lee Kuan Yew, “India's Peaceful Rise,” Forbes.com, December 24, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2007/1224/033.html

154. See for example, George Yeo, “Foreword,” in Datta-Ray, Looking East to Look West (see note 63 above), p. xi; and Vision Statement ASEAN India Commemorative Summit (see note 68 above).

155. BBC World Service poll, May 10, 2012, pp. 17–18 and BBC World Service poll, April 18, 2010, p. 12, http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/.

156. “On Power and Stabilising Forces,” The Straits Times, May 17, 2010, URL: http://160.96.2.142/content/pmosite/home.html

157. “India as a Great Power: Know Your Own Strength,” The Economist, March 30, 2013, http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21574458-india-poised-become-one-four-largest-military-powers-world-end

158. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Arms Transfers Database, http://www.sipri.org/.

159. Ibid.

160. Transcript of Question and Answer Session at the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (Singapore: Ministry of Defense, November 20, 2012), http://www.mindef.gov.sg.

161. “Special Address by Emeritus Senior Minister Goh Chok Tong at the Confederation Of Indian Industries Summit 2012,” January 12, 2012, http://www.mfa.gov.sg.

162. For ranking between 2006 and 2013, See Doing Business 2006: Creating Jobs, September 13, 2005 and Doing Business 2013: Smarter Regulations for Small and Medium-Size Enterprises, October 23, 2012, http://www.doingbusiness.org/.

163. “Explore the Data,” Index of Economic Freedom (Washington, DC: The Heritage Foundation and Wall Street Journal), http://www.heritage.org/.

164. Klaus Schwab, ed., The Global Competitiveness Report: 2012–2013 (Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2012), p. 29, http://reports.weforum.org/.

165. Robert z. Lawrence, Margareta Drzeniek Hanouz, and Sean Doherty, eds., The Global Enabling Trade Report 2012: Reducing Supply Chain Barriers (Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2012), p. 9, http://www3.weforum.org/; Robert Z. Lawrence, Jennifer Blanke, Margareta Dreniek Hanouz and John Moavenzadeh, eds., The Global Enabling Trade Report 2008 (Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2008), p. xvii, http://www3.weforum.org/.

166. ASEAN-India Eminent Persons’ Report to the Leaders (Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, October 2012), http://www.asean.org/.

167. Balijatra (or Journey to Bali) is celebrated annually in the month of November in Orissa to commemorate its ancient maritime linkages with Bali, Indonesia.