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ABSTRACT
After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, the Communist Party of China sought to break all ties between the Church in China and Western powers. Since 1957, there have been two distinct Catholic groups within the PRC: the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association, and the underground church loyal to the Vatican. This may be about to change, however, as in September 2018, the Vatican and the PRC signed a new provisional agreement on the appointment of bishops, which could lead to efforts towards reunification of the Catholic Church in China after more than sixty years of division. This paper introduces the changing position of the popes with respect to the PRC. The article argues that the new agreement should not be considered an initiative solely of Pope Francis, but rather the result of numerous changes within the Vatican instigated during the papacy of Pope John XXIII.
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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 1876–1958 (pope, 1939–1958).
2 Leung and Wang, ‘Sino-Vatican Negotiations’, 467.
3 As noted by Peter R. Moody, the underground church represents Catholics groups which are not approved by the CCP’s government and are therefore technically illegal. This does not mean they are necessarily ‘hidden’, however, as Catholics belonging to such groups may have their own building and do not necessarily hold their meetings in secret (Moody, ‘The Catholic Church in China Today’, 403).
4 Leung and Wang, ‘Sino-Vatican Negotiations’, 467.
5 Lo, ‘Why must Pope Francis come to China?’.
6 ‘Chinese Catholics Remain Split Over Vatican Deal’.
7 ‘United We Stand: China’s underground priests’; and Hong, ‘China cannot be trusted on Sino-Vatican deal’.
8 See Batke, ‘PRC Religious Policy’; and Leung, ‘China’s Religious Freedom Policy’.
9 Hong, ‘China cannot be Trusted On Sino-Vatican Deal’; and ‘Chinese Catholics Remain Split Over Vatican Deal’.
10 Mao, ‘On Coalition Government’, 313.
11 Zhuo, ‘Religion and Rule of Law in China’, 2.
12 According to the Constitution of the PRC, all ‘normal religious activities’ are protected. This is a little problematic, however, as the term ‘normal’ (zhengchang, 正常) is not explained anywhere in the Constitution or in any other legal document, leaving the term somewhat vague and without any fixed interpretative framework.
13 Charbonnier, Christians in China. A.D. 600 to 2000, 426.
14 For more on the issue of religious freedom in China, please see Potter, ‘Belief in Control’; and Yang, ‘From Co-operation to Resistance’.
15 Janz, World Christianity and Marxism, 133.
16 Ibid., 126.
17 Madsen, ‘Signs and Wonders’, 28.
18 Bays, Christianity in China, 172.
19 Charbonnier, Christians in China. A.D. 600 to 2000, 429.
20 However, this led to an important change for Chinese Catholics, as before the establishment of the PRC, less than 19% of all senior clerical posts in China (26 out of 139) were assigned to Chinese clergy; Bays, Christianity in China, 151.
21 The Protestant Three-Self Patriotic Association was established in 1953, while CCPA was finally established in 1957. See Janz, World Christianity and Marxism.
22 Yang, ‘From Cooperation to Resistance’, 80.
23 Madsen, China’s Catholics, 34.
24 The manifesto was published in Liberation Daily (Jiefang ribao 解放日报), Shanghai, December 1950.
25 Guangyuan manifesto. Chinese original; the author’s own English translation.
26 Madsen, China’s Catholics, 36.
27 Bays, Christianity in China, 164.
28 Vala, ‘Protestant Reaction to the Nationalism Agenda’, 63.
29 Janz, World Christianity and Marxism, 134.
30 At the time, the Holy See had already published an encyclical rejecting Marxist ideology. In 1937, Pope Pius XI expressed the negative position of the Vatican towards communism in Divini Redemptoris. Communism and socialism were rejected as they are atheistic and Bolshevistic . See Luxmoore and Babiuchová, Vatikán a rudý prapor, 45–47.
31 As a reaction to the communist rule in the countries of Eastern Europe, Pope Pius XII and the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy See published a document titled the Decree Against Communism on 1 July 1949. The document expressed the Vatican´s strong opposition to communism. See Luxmoore and Babiuchová, Vatikán a rudý prapor, 105.
32 Decree against Communism.
33 On 29 June 1958, Pope Pius XII published an encyclical Ad Apostolorum Principis as a reaction towards the election of Chinese bishops without the mandate from the Vatican. The Pope condemned the action and the CCPA. See Charbonnier, Christians in China, 441–442.
34 Ad Apostolorum Principis.
35 In the case of China, the situation was even more intense as Pope Pius XII officially supported the nationalist Kuomintang government during the civil war; and even after the nationalists lost the war in 1949 to the communist régime, the Vatican still recognised the nationalist government in Taiwan as the ruler over mainland China. On the Vatican’s stance towards communism, see Luxmoore and Babiuchová, Vatikán a rudý prapor. The situation of the Catholic Church during this period is explored in Madsen China’s Catholics and Bays Christianity in China. The relationship between the Vatican and Taiwan is further explained in Leung and Kuo, ‘Taiwan’s Role in the Chinese Catholic Church’.
36 The document states (Decree against Communism):
Question 1: By chance is it licit to give name or to make favours to communist parties?
Response: Negative.
Q2: By chance is it licit to publish, promulgate or read books, journals or leaflets which defend the action or the communist doctrine, or to write for them?
R: Negative.
Q3: Can Christians who perform the acts mentioned in n.1 and 2 be admitted to the sacraments?
R: Negative.
Q4: If Christians declare openly the materialist and antichristian doctrine of the communists, and, mainly, if they defend it or promulgate it, ‘ipso facto’, do they incur excommunication (‘speciali modo’) reserved to the Apostolic See?
R: Affirmative.
37 From 1946, Archbishop Antonio Riberi, an ambassador representing the Vatican in China, openly supported the Kuomintang government, promoted anti-Communist policy, and banned local Catholics from joining the Communist Party or any organisation run by the CCP. He also supported the ‘Legion of Mary’, a group of Catholic activists who were fighting communism.
38 On October 1954, Pope Pius XII appealed in the encyclical to the Chinese Catholics that they fight against separation of the Chinese Catholics from the Vatican.
39 Ad Apostolorum Principis.
40 Bays, Christianity in China, 174.
41 Ibid.
42 Even before this, the Vatican issued encyclicals concerning China: In 1952, Cupimus In Primis praised the loyalty of Chinese Christians; and in 1954, Ad Sinarum Gentem voiced support for foreign missionaries.
43 Ad Sinarum Gentem.
44 Ad Apostolorum Principis.
45 Charbonnier, Christians in China, 442.
46 Chan, ‘Civil Society and the Catholic Church’, 125.
47 Koesel, Religion and Authoritarianism, 124.
48 Charbonnier, Christians in China, 441.
49 Goossaert and Palmer, The Religious Question in Modern China, 380–381.
50 1881–1963, p. 1958–1963.
51 Luxmoore and Babiuchová, Vatikán a rudý prapor, 167–173.
52 1897–1978, pope 1963–1978.
53 Although Paul VI tried to continue with dialogues with the PRC, in 1966 the Holy See established an apostolic nunciature in Taipei. The Vatican was the only European country to have diplomatic relations with the Republic of China in Taiwan.
54 Charbonnier, Christians in China, 443.
55 Goossaert and Palmer, The Religious Question in Modern China, 162–165.
56 Madsen, China’s Catholics, 42.
57 Barbalet, Possamai, and Turner, eds. Religion and the State, 192.
58 Goossaert and Palmer, The Religious Question in Modern China, 25.
59 The restoration of land or property once confiscated is a complicated matter. A religious group is allowed to petition for reparation but the process is arduous and can take several years. For more information, see The Yang, ‘From Cooperation to Resistance,’ 80; Koesel, K. J. ‘Religion and Authoritarianism’, 87.
60 1920–2005, pope 1978–2005.
61 Chu, ‘China and the Vatican’, 147.
62 Leung and Wang, ‘Sino-Vatican Negotiations’, 467.
63 As a Pole, John Paul II had experience of communist rule and of democratic opposition in the European context. Before he became pope, he was a strong critic of Marxist ideology and the Vatican’s passivity in the face of the persecution and suppression of Catholics in communist countries.
64 Chenaux, Katolická cirkev a Komunismus v Evropě, 216–230.
65 Chu, ‘China and the Vatican’, 148–151.
66 Pope John Paul II addressed his letters to ‘China’ and ‘the bishops of China’, but many were in fact meant for Taiwan, as the Vatican had diplomatic relations with Taiwan rather than with the PRC.
67 Address of John Paul II to the Bishops of China on Their ‘Ad Limina’ Visit.
68 Address of Pope John Paul II to the Bishops of the Chinese Episcopal Conference on Their ‘Ad Limina’ Visit.
69 For example, in 1991, the Pope appointed Archbishop Ignatius Gong Pinmei as cardinal. This decision irritated the leaders of the CCPA and the Chinese government as until 1988 Gong had been in prison for his opposition to the regime. Pope John Paul II praised Gong for his refusal to obey the CCPA. In 2000, the Pope emphasised the role of martyrs in China, and this drew a strongly negative reaction from the Chinese government. Some martyrs killed during the Boxer Uprising were dismissed by the People’s Daily as criminals who deserved punishment for their crimes. For more information, see Madsen, China’s Catholics, and Chu ‘China and the Vatican’.
70 Moody, ‘The Catholic Church in China Today’, 409.
71 Mariani, ‘The Four Catholic Bishops of Shanghai’, 48.
72 Letter of the Holy Father Pope Benedict XVI To the Bishops, Priests, Consecrated Persons and Lay Faithful of the Catholic Church in the People´s Republic of China.
73 Ad Apostolorum Principis.
74 Zängle, ‘Trends in Papal Communication’, 361.
75 See Wiest, ‘Sino-Vatican Relations’, 189–216.
76 Pastoral Guidelines of the Holy See Concerning the Civil Registration of Clergy in China.
77 For example, the Uca News has reported that underground bishops Guo and Peter Zhuang Jianjian are stepping down from their post. For more info, see ‘Vatican Mission Oversees Chinese Underground Bishops Stepping Aside’.
78 Message of His Holiness Pope Francis to the Catholics of China.
79 Vala, ‘Protestant Reaction to the Nationalism Agenda’, 64.
80 Leung and Wang, ‘Sino-Vatican Negotiations’, 447.
81 Cox, ‘Freedom of Religion in China’, 396.
82 Liberation theology considers capitalism to be immoral and a means of oppressing the poor. Liberation theology calls on Catholics to promote social justice rather than capitalism. Before his papacy, Pope Francis wrote a chapter called ‘The limits of capitalism’, in which he equated capitalism with the promotion of selfish and unjust behaviour. Pope John Paul II on the other hand opposed this theology. See also McQuillan and Park, ‘Pope Francis, Capitalism, and Private Charitable Giving’, 419–441.
83 Pope Francis is also seeking to free the Vatican from materialism and elitism. He cancelled and withdrew many honorary degrees as he believes they simply promote a social hierarchy within the church and are a tool for making money. For more on this, see Zulehner, Papež František, 34–37.
84 Evangelii Gaudium.
85 McQuillan and Park, ‘Pope Francis, Capitalism, and Private Charitable Giving’, 420,422.
86 Stourton, ‘Is the Pope a communist?’.
87 See zzhttp://www.paolo-calleri.de/paolocalleri/karikaturenseiten2013/revolutionaer_ farbig_calleri.html.
88 There are, however, many others who support the Pope’s aspirations and suggest his mission is not Marxist but is dedicated to promoting the ideal of Jesus Christ as the bringer of relief to all people regardless of their social status. For more on similar apologetics, see Zulehner, Papež František, 43–64; Spadaro, ‘The Agreement between China and the Holy See’.
89 Intervention by Archbishop Paul Richard Gallagher, Secretary for Relations with States of the Holy See.
91 Zulehner, Papež František a jeho reforma církve, 19.
92 Apostolic Journey to Pakistan, Philippines I, Guam, Japan, Anchorage.
93 Moody, ‘The Catholic Church in China Today’, 410.
94 ‘China Cannot be Trusted on Sino-Vatican Deal,’ ‘United We Stand: China’s Underground Priests.’
95 ‘United We Stand: China’s Underground Priests.’
96 Message of His Holiness Pope Francis to the Catholics of China and to the Universal Church.
97 This does not, however, mean that it would lead to the enshrining of religious freedom in the constitutions of communist countries. Many countries nonetheless allowed their bishops to visit the Vatican. President Khrushchev even sent a personal letter to Pope John XXIII on his birthday. For more on the Vatican’s dialogue with Eastern European communist régimes, see Luxmoore, J. and Babiuchová, J. Vatikán a rudý prapor.
98 Message of the Holy Father to Participants in the 3rd International Conference of ‘Catholic Theological Ethics in the World Church’.
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Magdaléna Masláková
Mgr. Bc. Magdaléna Masláková (b. 1991) graduated in the Study of Religion (2015) and the Cultural Studies of China (2017) at the Masaryk University in Brno. She continued her studies at Zhejiang University, and is currently a PhD student at the department of Study of Religions at Masaryk University. She is also a staff member at the China Studies Seminar at the same university. In her research, she is dedicated to the study of Christianity in the Chinese context.