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Abstract
El conde Partinuplés (first published 1653) is one of only two extant plays written by the Sevillan poet/dramatist Ana Caro Mallén de Soto (‘la décima musa sevillana’). Despite McKendrick's dismissal of the play as ‘extremely bad’, it has been the object of substantial critical scrutiny since the 1970s, impelled in great part by the production of modern editions (Luna and Delgado) and by Kaminsky's bio-biographical study (1973). Two responses have dominated: analysis of the play's imaginative reconceptualization of source material (most notably the Classical myth of Cupid and Psyche as contained in Apuleius and transmitted via the anonymous French chivalric romance Portonopeus de Blois; and more contemporary models, such as Calderón's La vida es sueño); discussions of the play from a gender/feminist perspective. There is some inevitable entanglement in these approaches, areas of ideological concurrence, but also of contradiction. This article will offer a critical synthesis of these lines of enquiry around an analysis of the play's patterns of non-identical repetition and, following Hubert's theory of ‘double movement’, will move beyond these to consider the generative and potentially transcendent nature of the interplay of inscription (text) and transcription (interpretive performance). A subversive strategy of elusion underpins this interference, a dynamic, mobile frame within which ‘envidia’ (‘celos’) functions as a prominent dramatic catalyst, directed outwards, and mobilized both as a potent catalyst for the female dramatist's artistic creativity and as an antagonistic interrogation of broader socio-cultural forms of inequality. The play's (new) marvellous versions and inversions expand the functions of the sign beyond Renaissance resemblance and repetition, challenging its promotion of unity and stable identity, and opening up an interactive space between the represented (world/product) and the representing (stage/process). The power of authorities, as figured in/through the dramatic and rhetorical devices of the play, is self-consciously precarious, but it is this very anxious articulation that challenges the very authority of power.
Notes
1 The idea of theatre as a metaphor has been investigated from many and various perspectives. See, for instance, as relevant to my argument, Kent T. Van den Berg's exploration of the treatment of performance as a metaphor, in a thoughtful analysis of the poetics of theatrical space (wherein the playhouse operates as architectural emblem): Playhouse and Cosmos: Shakespearean Theater As Metaphor (London/Toronto: Associated Univ. Presses, 1985).
2 I am indebted to Stoetzler's and Yuval-Davis' research on situated knowledge which I have applied in broad terms to the specific context of theatre. See Marcel Stoetzler & Nira Yuval-Davis, ‘Standpoint Theory, Situated Knowledge and the Situated Imagination’, Feminist Theory, 3:3 (2002), 315–34.
3 See Jean-Christophe Agnew, Worlds Apart: The Market and the Theater in Anglo-American Thought, 1550–1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 1986), 9.
4 For a very detailed application of this, see Martin Andrew's discussion of Jonson's Volpone: ‘ “Cut So Like Her Character”: Preconstructing Celia in Volpone’, in Medieval and Renaissance Drama in England, Vol. 8, ed. J. Leeds Barroll (Madison & Teaneck: Fairleigh Dickinson U. P./London: Associated Univ. Presses, 1996), 94–119.
5 Laura Bass sums up the belated shift in Comedia criticism: ‘once judged deficient for its supposed lack of character development, the Spanish comedia is now more generally considered a drama of the subject articulated within the conflicting demands of social and gender positions, on the one hand, and desire, on the other [ … ] far from “flat types” characters in the comedia are multidimensional subjects' (Laura Bass, The Drama of the Portrait: Theater and Visual Culture in Early Modern Spain [University Park: Pennsylvania U. P., 2008], 11). The idea of character ‘deficiency’ found its most explicit statement in A. A. Parker's study which advocated primacy to action over character in approaching Golden-Age Comedia; see A. A. Parker, The Approach to the Spanish Drama of the Golden Age (London: Hispanic and Luso-Brazilian Councils, 1957).
6 The ‘black legend’ that leaves Spain on the margins of European intellectual and philosophical advances has been roundly rejected by, among others, Jeremy Robbins (Arts of Perception: The Epistemological Mentality of the Spanish Baroque, 1580–1720 [Abingdon/New York: Routledge, 2007]) and is a view recently reiterated in the context of Comedia scholarship by Teresa Scott Soufas, ‘Melancholy, the Comedia and Early Modern Psychology’, in A Companion to Early Modern Hispanic Theater, ed. Hilaire Kallendorf (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2014), 199–210.
7 See Andrew, who refers to the processes of characterization as ‘functions of both dramatist and the fashioning or self-fashioning character’ in an age of increasing social mobility (‘ “Cut So Like Her Character” ’, 97). Andrew draws on Terry Eagleton's observations to underpin his argument (see Terry Eagleton, ‘Editor's Preface’, in Peter Womack, Ben Jonson, Rereading Literature [Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986], i–x).
8 Much has been written on the issue of closure in Golden-Age drama. See, as representative: José M. Regueiro, ‘Textual Discontinuities and the Problems of Closure in the Spanish Drama of the Golden Age’, in Cultural Authority in Golden Age Spain, ed. Marina S. Brownlee & Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U. P., 1995); Isaac Benabu, Reading for the Stage: Calderón and His Contemporaries (Woodbridge: Tamesis, 2003), Chapter 5, ‘Reading Closure’, 81–87; and (for a lucid discussion of critical approaches to marriage in Comedia endings), Catherine Connor (Swietlicki), ‘Marriage and Subversion in Comedia Endings: Problems in Art and Society’, in Gender, Identity and Representation in Spain's Golden Age, ed. Anita K. Stoll & Dawn L. Smith (Lewisburg: Bucknell U. P., 2000), 23–46.
9 Aristotle connected self-knowledge and mirroring by suggesting that a friend is a mirror in whom we can see reflected visions of ourselves; self-knowledge being a fundamental part of the virtuous life in Aristotelian ethics (see, for instance, Nicomachean Ethics, 1169b, 33 and Magna moralia, 1213a, 22–24, in The Complete Works of Aristotle, ed. Jonathan Barnes, 2 vols [New Jersey: Princeton U. P., 1991], Vol. II). While Lope's view of the play as an ‘espejo de las costumbres' as set out in the Arte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo (ed. Juana de José Prades [Madrid: CSIC, 1971], l. 123) seems to owe more to Cicero, he also plays with the metaphor in several of his dramas in ways that suggest Aristotelian intervention: e.g., in Act I of El castigo sin venganza the Duke refers to the play as a mirror in conversation with Ricardo (ll. 215–25) framing more conventionally the Aristotelian moment that is problematized when Aurora glimpses her beloved Federico kissing his stepmother Casandra. See Lope de Vega, El castigo sin venganza, ed., con intro., de Antonio Carreño (Madrid: Cátedra, 1993).
10 See Judd D. Hubert, Corneille's Performative Metaphors (Charlottesville: Rockwood Press, 1997), 5–7.
11 See Judd D. Hubert, Metatheater: The Example of Shakespeare (Lincoln, NE: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1991), 88.
12 See Franco Tonelli & Judd Hubert, ‘Theatricality: The Burden of the Text’, SubStance, 6–7:21 (1978–79), 79–102 (p. 93).
13 I have drawn very broadly from the work of feminist sociologists on intersectionality insofar as it accounts for the multiple grounds of identity to be apprehended when considering how the social world is constructed. See Stoetzler & Yuval-Davis, ‘Standpoint Theory’; also Nina Yuval-Davis, ‘Intersectionality and Feminist Politics', European Journal of Women's Studies, 13:3 (2006), 193–209, who draws (among others) on the work of Avtar Brah & Ann Phoenix, ‘Ain't I a Woman? Revisiting Intersectionality’, Journal of International Women's Studies, 5:3 (2004), 75–86.
14 Tonelli & Hubert, ‘Theatricality’, 85–86. Their ‘double movement’ theory is particularly interesting in its accommodation of interpretation as part of the process of writing itself.
15 The synthesizing approach I propose here should mitigate against the risk that Van den Berg identified in metacriticism which he positioned at the extreme end of theatrical criticism: ‘for even when the metaplay is considered as a text for performance, it is perceived as a “closed system” that converts its relations to actors and audience, as well as to the ostensible subjects and themes, into aspects of its reflexive relation to itself’ (Playhouse and Cosmos, 15).
16 El conde Partinuplés (first published in 1653, composition date disputed) is one of only two extant plays written by the poet/dramatist Ana Caro Mallén de Soto, although there is evidence that she wrote many more, and that these were performed to rapturous reception both in Madrid and Seville. Her corpus includes relaciones (on festivities in Seville 1628, 1633 and 1635), two autos sacramentales, a loa sacramental and décimas dedicated to her friend, the writer, Doña María de Zayas y Sotomayor. María José Delgado provides the most complete synthesis of extant documentation relating to Caro's life and work: see ‘Ana Caro: vida y producción literaria’, in Las comedias de Ana Caro. ‘Valor, agravio y mujer’ y ‘El conde Partinuplés', ed., estudio & notas de Maria José Delgado (New York: Peter Lang, 1998), 1–19; although Delgado and all subsequent scholarship on Caro owe a debt to the pioneering work of Lola Luna. Throughout this article I will refer to the following edition: Ana Caro, El conde Partinuplés, ed., intro. & notas de Lola Luna (Kassel: Edition Reichenberger, 1993). All verse references will be given in parenthesis. Luna designates the play a ‘comedia de apariencias' (‘Introducción’, 1–75 [p. 47]).
17 See Melveena McKendrick, Woman and Society in the Spanish Drama of the Golden Age: A Study of the ‘mujer varonil’ (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 1974), 142–44.
18 See, for instance, Adrienne Martín's recent analysis of the pedagogy of love in two Lope plays (La dama boba and El animal de Hungría) which, in the case of La dama boba, reflects upon the substantiality of the play's philosophical substratum: ‘Learning through Love in Lope de Vega's Drama’, in Women's Literacy in Early Modern Spain and the New World, ed. Anne J. Cruz & Rosilie Hernández (Farnham/Burlington: Ashgate, 2011), 177–90 (especially pp. 177–81).
19 McKendrick, Woman and Society, 172–73 (p. 172).
20 McKendrick, Woman and Society, 172 (emphasis retained from McKendrick).
21 Soufas substitutes the term for ‘párthenos’ (the unmarried female in the period between control of father and husband); de Armas invalidates it (Rosaura is not a true ‘mujer esquiva’), while Maroto confirms it (Rosaura is a good fit for the ‘esquiva’ category). See Teresa Scott Soufas, ‘Marrying Off the “Párthenos” in Caro's El conde Partinuplés’, in Engendering the Early Modern Stage: Women Playwrights in the Spanish Empire, ed. Valerie Hegstrom & Amy R. Williamsen (New Orleans: Univ. Press of the South, 1999), 93–106; Frederick A. de Armas, The Invisible Mistress: Aspects of Feminism and Fantasy in the Golden Age (Charlottesville: Biblioteca Siglo de Oro, 1976), 176–77; Mercedes Maroto Camino, ‘Negotiating Women: Ana Caro's El conde Partinuplés and Pedro Calderón de la Barca's La vida es sueño’, Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature, 26:2 (2007), 199–216 (p. 203).
22 See Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York/London: Routledge, 1990).
23 See Judith Butler, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’ (New York/London: Routledge, 1993), 227.
24 The emphasis on the dialogical aspect of theatre practice for identity construction can be traced back to Mikhail Bakhtin's seminal work, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Caryl Emerson & Michael Holquist (Austin: The Univ. of Texas Press, 1981).
25 There is much speculation around biographical data (in fact although Caro is referred to as ‘la décima musa sevillana’ it is unclear whether Seville was her natural or adopted home), but one thing emerges clearly: Caro was, as Luna has evidenced, a writer ‘de oficio’. See Lola Luna, ‘Ana Caro, una escritora “de oficio” del Siglo de Oro’, in An Issue of Gender: Women's Perceptions and Perceptions of Women in Hispanic Society and Literature, ed. Ann L. Mackenzie & Dorothy S. Severin, intro. by Ann L. Mackenzie, BHS, LXXII:1 (1995), 11–26. As such Caro was implicated in male-dominated systems of cultural exchange and capital, involved in networks of academies, and the power dynamics of literary patronage (there are, for instance, extant dedications to the Conde-duque Olivares). See also Alicia R. Zuese, ‘Ana Caro and the Literary Academies of Seventeenth-Century Spain’, in Women's Literacy in Early Modern Spain, ed. Cruz & Hernández, 191–208.
26 Rosaura could be added to the female protagonists identified by Vidler as those who ‘escape categorization in a feminist context’, but I am less comfortable with Vidler's designation of these women as ‘exceptional’. See Laura L. Vidler, Performance Reconstruction and Spanish Golden Age Drama: Reviving and Revising the ‘Comedia’ (Basingstoke/New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2014), 108.
27 In a recent Kierkegaardian-inspired reflection on the real as repetition, Catherine Pickstock offers the following understanding of the human being's subjective investment with reality: ‘We negotiate the world through the process of recognition. This means that we must, at every turn, identify anew everything that we encounter’. When this process is impeded or blocked, she suggests that we are lost in confusion, which at its most extreme results in a loss of sense of self. External acts of recognition and access to self-knowledge are therefore interdependent components of an ontological circuit: ‘Without knowing who we are, we cannot know which paths to take, which turn is ours, nor what we are to do when we arrive. And without a sense of the roles that we are to borrow or the masks we are to assume, nor the anticipatory maps of space to be encountered and scripts to be performed at future moments [ … ] we cannot reflexively identify our own subjectivity and perhaps can have no sense of self-identity at all’ (Catherine Pickstock, Repetition and Identity [Oxford: Oxford U. P., 2013], 1).
28 See the following respectively: McKendrick, Woman and Society, 172, n. 1; Milton A. Buchanan, ‘Partinuplés de Bles. An Episode in Tirso's Amar por señas. Lope's La viuda valenciana’, Modern Language Notes, 21:1 (1906), 3–8 (p. 6); Women's Acts: Plays by Women Dramatists of Spain's Golden Age, ed., intro. & notes by Teresa Scott Soufas (Lexington: The Univ. Press of Kentucky, 1997), 137–62; Amy Kaminsky, ‘Ana Caro Mallén de Soto’, in Spanish Women Writers: A Bio-Bibliographical Source Book, ed. Linda Gould Levine, Ellen Engelson Marson & Gloria Feiman Waldman (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1993), 86–97.
29 On the play's relationship to its models see the following as representative: Luna, ‘Introducción’, in El conde Partinuplés, ed. Luna, 28–32 (French sources), 35–40 (chapbook), 40–44 (mythical models, with reference also to Fulgentius); de Armas, The Invisible Mistress, 19–20; Elizabeth J. Ordóñez, ‘Woman and Her Text in the Works of María de Zayas and Ana Caro’, Revista de Estudios Hispánicos, 19:1 (1985), 3–15 (who argues for a more self-conscious anxiety of authorship in women-authored text); Rina Walthaus, ‘La comedia de Doña Ana Caro Mallén de Soto’, in Estudios sobre escritoras hispánicas en honor de Georgina Sabat-Rivers, ed. Lou Charnon-Deutsch (Madrid: Castalia, 1992), 326–41 (pp. 332–33), who focuses on chivalric models noting especially Caro's suppression of eroticism; and Judith Whitenack's more detailed scrutiny of the play's engagement with chivalric sources, ‘Ana Caro's Partinuplés and the Chivalric Tradition’, in Engendering the Early Modern Stage, ed. Hegstrom & Williamsen, 51–71.
30 Fulgentius read the Metapmorphoses as platonic, redemptive, allegory, as the drama of a soul lost and found. Most recent commentators agree that the story of Cupid and Psyche has a special significance for this interpretation of the text. However, the less than smooth integration of Platonic duality, as well as the conflicting conclusions of the ending, suggest that the didactic purpose of the text was ‘far from straightforward’. See, for instance, Paula James, Unity in Diversity: A Study of Apuleius’ ‘Metamorphoses’ (Hildesheim: Olms-Weidmann, 1987), 126. I have consulted the following edition: Apuleius, Cupid and Psyche, ed., trans. & intro. by E. J. Kenney (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 1990).
31 In Apuleius, Psyche as human simulacrum of Venus, calls the latter's immortality into question, renders pointless the judgment of Paris and consequential suffering, and is the catalyst of the deity's envy that drives the narrative. Only by overcoming the trials set by Venus can Psyche transcend the human flaws that have impeded her throughout and attain immortality in union with Cupid.
32 Juan Luis Montousse Vega, following Genette's theory of hypertextuality, argues for a reading of the play derived from a single transformed source (‘ “Si me buscas, me hallarás”: la configuración del discurso femenino en la comedia de Ana Caro El Conde de Partinuplés', Archivum, 44–45:2 [1994–95], 7–27); Christopher B. Weimar analyses the play as heuristic imitation of Calderón's La vida es sueño (‘Ana Caro's El conde Partinuplés and Calderón's La vida es sueño: Protofeminism and Heuristic Imitation’, Bulletin of the Comediantes, 52:1 [2001], 123–46); Maroto Camino (‘Negotiating Women’), who also sees the play as a reworking of Calderón, adds to Weimar's list of coincidences and divergences, but finds compromise in the ending where Weimar finds defiance.
33 See Frederick A. de Armas, ‘Mirrors and Matriline: (In)Visibilities in Ana Caro's El conde Partinuplés', in Engendering the Early Modern Stage, ed. Hegstrom & Williamsen, 75–91 (p. 80).
34 See Delgado, Las comedias de Ana Caro, ed. Delgado, 152–59.
35 See Maria Cristina Quintero's ‘Epilogue’ to her fascinating study of monarchy in the personae of powerful on-stage queens, Gendering the Crown in the Spanish Baroque ‘Comedia’ (Farnham/Burlington: Ashgate, 2012), 215–22 (p. 217).
36 Soufas (Women's Acts, 43–44) provides a historical context for the disorder in Isabel and Elizabeth I; Jonathan Ellis (‘Royal Obligation and the “Uncontrolled” Female in Ana Caro's El conde Partinuplés', Bulletin of the Comediantes, 62:1 [2010], 15–30) follows Soufas' lead to Isabel as model while challenging her earlier ‘párthenos' argument. María M. Carrión finds a more compelling model in Elizabeth I for Rosaura's strategy of postponement (‘Portrait of a Lady: Marriage, Postponement, and Representation in Ana Caro's El conde Partinuplés', Modern Language Notes, 114:2 [1999], 241–68). See also Thomas Finn, ‘Women's Kingdoms: Female Monarchs by Two Women Dramatists of Seventeenth-Century Spain and France’, Bulletin of the Comediantes, 59:1 (2007), 131–48, who notes how the transitory female ruler parallels a rethinking of women's position in European society of the time (134, 139).
37 See Kenneth Burke, ‘Dramatism’, in Communication: Concepts and Perspectives, ed. Lee Thayer (Washington D.C.: Spartan Books/London: Macmillan, 1967), 327–60; a shorter version appears in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, ed. David L. Sills, 18 vols (New York: Macmillan/Free Press, 1968–1979), VII, 445–52. David Cratis Williams reflects on what he calls the ‘ontological loop’ in the critical orientations of Burke's theory of language as symbolic action. See ‘Under the Sign of (An)Nihilation: Burke in the Age of Nuclear Destruction and Critical Deconstruction’, in The Legacy of Kenneth Burke, ed. Herbert W. Simons & Trevor Melia (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 196–224 (especially pp. 218–19).
38 See Carrión, ‘Portrait of a Lady’, 244–45, for discussion of the various decodings of the portrait (especially the reaction of Gaulín, a misogynistic tirade developed through accumulation and repetition that finds a deviant reiteration in Aldora's parallel speech act [264]).
39 See Williams, ‘Under the Sign of (An)Nihilation’, 217.
40 See Kenneth Burke, A Grammar of Motives (Berkeley/Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press, 1945), xxii.
41 Thornton Wilder observed: ‘A play is what takes place [ … ] On the stage it is always now’, as cited by Manfred Pfister, Das Drama (München: Fink, 1977), 359. The intertextual schema of Caro's play ensures a complex temporal layering that comprises other contexts of understanding, but these are enveloped in a present moment created through various performative modes: Rosaura's repeated calls on her audience's attention here (e.g. ‘escuchadme atentos' [148]); interventions which mark out contemporary politics (enmity with France and the French [1737]); metatheatrical asides (Gaulín's identification of female authorship, ‘Descuidóse la poeta’ [612]); and concretizing in language the illusion-making devices of the stage (Gaulín's comments on the use of the ‘tramoya’ [1857]).
42 See Carrión (‘Portrait of a Lady’, 254–58) for a lucid synthesis of Elizabeth's relevant speeches.
43 See Dayle Seidenspinner-Núñez, ‘Symmetry of Form and Emblematic Design in El conde Partinuplés', Kentucky Romance Quarterly, 30:1 (1983), 61–76 (p. 69). Note, however, that where the role of magic is gradually erased in the Spanish version of the romance, Aldora continues to perform as an intermediary right up until the final scenes of Caro's play. The demythification of her powers is communicated mostly via the gracioso Gaulín.
44 Caro confronts both the gender bias in the ethical norms of her day and society's imposition of silence on the female by allowing Rosaura to ‘own’ and so reformulate the dogma. See for instance, her claims to curiosity: ‘Si hacer quieres lo que dices, / presto prima, presto, presto, / pues sabes que las mujeres / pecamos en el extremo / de curiosas' (313–17).
45 Admiration is, on the other hand, ‘happy self-surrender’. See Søren Kierkegaard, The Sickness unto Death: A Christian Psychological Exposition for Upbuilding and Awakening (1849) ed. & trans., with intro. & notes, by Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong (Princeton: Princeton U. P., 1980), 86.
46 See Ordoñez, ‘Woman and Her Text’, 12–13; Teresa Scott Soufas, ‘Ana Caro's Re-evaluation of the mujer varonil’, in The Perception of Women in Spanish Theater of the Golden Age, ed. Anita K. Stoll & Dawn L. Smith (Lewisburg: Bucknell U. P., 1991), 85–106 (pp. 88–89); Dian Fox, ‘ “¡Qué bien sabéis persuadir!”: Petrarch, Don Juan and Ana Caro’, Calíope, 6 (2000), 35–51 (p. 47).
47 See Quintero, Gendering the Crown, 218.
48 See Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, trans. Sheila Faria Glaser (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1994), 6.
49 See Bass, The Drama of the Portrait, 11, and on the ‘substitute ability of the portrait’ and Renaissance adherence to Neoplatonic interpretations, see pp. 21–22.
50 Interestingly Lisbella is the actual ‘invisible mistress' of Act II, her role elided after Act I until her strong re-entry on an equal footing with Rosaura in the final scenes.
51 Michel Chion's concept of the acousmêtre has often been used by film critics to explore the spectator's cinematic experience in regard to the juxtaposition of sound and image. The acousmêtre neither prioritizes sound nor image but calls attention to the disjunction between them. It is usefully transferred to theatrical staging of (apparent) disembodied voices because of its significance for audience participation (both inset and outer), as the acousmêtre leaves open to imagination and interpretation the source of the sound. See Michel Chion, The Voice in Cinema, trans. Claudia Gorbman (New York: Columbia U. P., 1999).
52 In a recent analysis of Deleuze's seminal critique of Platonism in Difference and Repetition, Joshua Ramey makes the following observation: ‘False claimants contradict themselves performatively because their character is not fit for the truth of the idea in which they claim to participate’ (Joshua Ramey, The Hermetic Deleuze. Philosophy and Spiritual Ordeal [Durham, NC: Duke U. P., 2012], 120–21).
53 See Sayre N. Greenfield, The Ends of Allegory (London/Ontario: Associated Univ. Presses, 1998), 16. The full quote reads: ‘Allegorical reading is seldom capable of radicalism precisely because it provides a metaphoric mechanism of escape from any uncomfortable associations’.
54 See Mladen Dolar, A Voice and Nothing More (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 71.
* Disclosure Statement: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.