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Miscellany

Woman unbound? negotiating images of the modern in nineteen thirties’ Catalonia

Pages 807-822 | Published online: 19 Oct 2010
 

Notes

‘Pel que fa al desenvolupament de l’esport femení, la importància del concepte de regeneració racial en els discursos nacionalistes de l’època i l’impuls dels corrents higienistes, al costat de l’avenç del feminisme, en foren factors determinants. Catalunya, que s’emmirallava en els models culturals europeus, va participar de ple en el fenomen’ (Neus Real Mercadal, El Club Femení i d’Esports de Barcelona, plataforma d’acció cultural, Biblioteca Serra d’Or 205 [Barcelona: Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, 1998], 25, footnote 29).

A brief overview of sport in Mallorca at this time is given by Caterina Valriu, ‘Dones a les Illes: treball, esplai i ensenyament (1895–1945). Dona i temps d’oci’, in 15 anys d’investigació sobre gènere a la UIB (Palma: UIB, 1999), 245–53 (pp. 250–53). It is more telling that the two major female contributors to the 1930s’ magazine Brisas on the subject of sport are a journalist normally resident in Barcelona and a Belgian-German dancer. For an enlightening article on Mallorcan females’ reticence to involve themselves in physical exercise, see Anna Maria Martínez-Sagi, ‘Els professors “of Fisical [sic] Culture” de Mallorca’, La Rambla (esport i ciutadania), No. 269 (17 September 1934), p. 6.

Rosa M. Arquimbau, one of the more dynamic and original female contributors to La Rambla, declares that Feminism ‘ja no voldrà dir “cotilla i polacres” i “pomells de joventut” i pairalisme i flirts amb “perseverants”. “Feminisme” voldrà dir Ciutadania femenina amb totes les seves conseqüències’ (‘Nosaltres’, La Rambla (esport i ciutadania), No. 82 [erroneously printed as 81], 3 August 1931, p. 7). In 1932, she uses the designation ‘les dames de la cotilla i les polacres’ to refer to certain Catholic women for whom Catholicism, kindness and intelligence appear to be incompatible. They are lionesses, unlike Arquimbau herself and others ‘que no duem cotilla i polacres i no ens diem lleones, perquè preferim passar per dones que no pas bèsties’ (‘Les dames de la cotilla i les polacres’, La Rambla [esport i ciutadania], No. 103 [4 January 1932], p. 7).

Joanna Frueh, ‘The Fear of Flesh that Moves’, High Performance, LV (1991), 70–71 (p. 71).

The third series of D’Ací i D’Allà was edited by Carles Soldevila. Llorenç Villalonga was literary editor and also, eventually, principal contributor of Brisas.

As part of a drive to attract new readers, D’Ací i D’Allà had declared in 1922: ‘Tenim una llengua nostra que és sinònim de tenir una pàtria nostra; doncs hem de tenir una literatura nostra, un art nostre, una cultura nostra; i això per dignitat, per orgull patriòtic, per instint de conservació’. Cited in Joan Manuel Tresserras, D’Ací i D’Allà: Aparador de la modernitat (1918–1936) (Barcelona: Llibres de l’Índex, 1993), 18–19. This book is a significantly reduced and reworked version of the author’s doctoral thesis.

Ibid., 70.

Ibid., 217. For D’Ací i D’Allà’s role in promoting moral and physical fitness through the construction of public swimming pools, see my article, ‘Almost a Revolution: The Cultural Centring of the Swimming Pool’, Romance Studies, XXII, No. 1 (2004), 41–50.

See Miguel and Llorenç Villalonga’s articles in El Día (Palma).

Francesc Fontbona, ‘La ilustración gráfica. Las técnicas fotomecánicas’, in Carrete, Vega, Bozal, Fontbona, El grabado en España (siglos XIX y XX), vol.XXXII de Summa Artis. Historia general del Arte (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1988) (p. 554) (cited by Joan Manuel Tresserras i Gaju, ‘D’Ací i D’Allà [1918–1936]: aparador de la modernitat i la massificació’ [unpublished doctoral thesis, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 1990], p. 411).

The title of the newspaper undergoes some variation during the 1930s. I reproduce the title as it is given in each issue.

Carles Soldevila, ‘Tres posats de la literatura davant l’esport,’ Butlletí del F.C. Barcelona, No. 7 (February 1929), 1–2 (p. 2).

Mary Vincent, ‘Style and Uniformity in the Falange Española’, in Fashioning the Body Politic, ed. Wendy Parkins (Oxford: Berg, 2002), 167–87 (p. 184).

See, for example, Neus Real on the Club Femení i d’Esports (note 2, above).

Romaní [Anna Murià], ‘Tres menes de gimnàstica’, La Rambla (esport i ciutadania), No. 280 (24 December 1934), p. 7.

Frueh, ‘The Fear of Flesh that Moves’, 71.

Ibid.

Dr J. Soler i Damians, ‘Educació física femenina o esport femení?’, La Rambla, No. 6 (17 March 1930), p. 6.

Kathleen E. McCrone, Sport and the Physical Emancipation of English Women 1870–1914 (London: Routledge, 1988), 251.

Real Mercadal, El Club Femení i d’Esports de Barcelona, 22, footnote 20, and 25 footnote 29.

This is especially true of Anna Maria Martínez-Sagi, subject of my paper delivered at a conference on Twentieth-century Spanish Women Authors, UC Berkeley 2004.

See, for example, Anna Mª Martínez-Sagi, ‘L’esport i la bellesa estètica’, La Rambla (ciutadania), No. 246 (25 June 1934), p. 10. There is ample fear of moving flesh in Sagi’s recommendations, and sport, when judiciously applied, is an effective panacea.

Petr Roubal distinguishes similarly ‘between the way nationalist and communist gymnasts understood the body’ in the twentieth century. See ‘Politics of Gymnastics: Mass Gymnastic Displays under Communism in Central and Eastern Europe’, Body & Society, IX, No. 2 (2003), 1–25 (pp. 15, 16).

‘Una conferència de Josep M. Massip’, La Rambla (esport i ciutadania), No. 170 (10 April 1933), p. 4. This lecture was given by the Editor of La Rambla on 6 April 1933 at the Argentona Athenaeum on the subject of ‘Esport i ciutadania’.

Anon., ‘Feu gimnàstica!’, La Rambla (esport i ciutadania), No. 171 (17 April 1933), p. 7. For more on Jahn, Tyrš and the Sokols, see Petr Roubal, ‘Politics of Gymnastics’. Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1789–1839) is credited with being the founder of modern gymnastics. Per Henrik Ling (1766–1839) introduced the ideas of GutsMuths’ disciples into Sweden, and Francisco Amorós is seen as Spain’s father of gymnastics.

‘Una conferència de Josep M. Massip’ (see above): ‘Aquesta és la missió més alta i més noble que li pot ésser reservada a l’esport, i la seva eficàcia més bella: ésser un dia, si cal, la força de xoc patriòtica i ciutadana, que aixequi la bandera del dret i defensi el règim de dignitat civil que la ciutadania catalana i espanyola volgué donar-se en aquella hora exemplar del 14 d’abril’. Massip’s call to the youth is echoed by Anna Murià, writing as Romaní. See ‘I el patriotisme?’, La Rambla (ciutadania), No. 253 (2 July 1934), p. 8.

McCrone, Sport and the Physical Emancipation of English Women, 217.

Vincent, ‘Style and Uniformity in the Falange Española’, 183.

Montserrat Jordi, ‘El feminisme i Apel·les Mestres’, La Rambla de Catalunya (esport i ciutadania), No. 15 (7 July 1930), p. 6.

Anon., ‘Mirador indiscret’, Mirador, No. 19 (6 June 1929), p. 2. The author suggests that a mobile language course might be made available to tour the editorial offices of Barcelona’s newspapers.

Romaní [Anna Murià], ‘Voldríem saber què és el ping-pong …’, La Rambla (esport i ciutadania), No. 230 (14 May 1934), p. 10.

‘Cautxulina’, a diminutive form of ‘cautxú’, meaning rubber, may be what was known as Lastex, developed by Dunlop in 1932, but I adopt ‘rubber’ here for convenience.

The antagonistic juxtaposing of sport, female sexuality and female passivity, implies once more that sport de-sexualizes because it de-feminizes.

See ‘El golf de Sant Cugat’, D’Ací i D’Allà, No. 169 (Spring 1932): ‘¿Qui ha dit, amb una generalització temerària, que l’esport era una cosa brutal? Hi ha esport i esport. Al costat dels exercicis que impliquen una lluita simultània dels contendents, amb mil riscos de fractura, escoriació, luxació, etc., hi ha els esports que es descabdellen en una forma alterna i tranquil·la, sense frenesí, sense topades’. Golf is one such sport.

Frueh, ‘The Fear of Flesh that Moves’, 71.

Other advertisements for corsets and girdles offer variations on a theme: a tennis player is obliterated by a cross, for example. The technique is repeated in a spread for GeléeMitza: the words ‘diet’, ‘exercises’ and ‘medication’, together with accompanying illustration, are crossed out. See D’Ací i D’Allà, No. 176 (Spring 1934), n.p., and ‘Adelgazar con …’, Brisas, No. 11 (February 1935), n.p.

McCrone, Sport and the Physical Emancipation of English Women, 236.

See, for example, Carles Soldevila, ‘Instituts de bellesa’ in Plasenteries, from Obres completes, Biblioteca Perenne, 21 (Barcelona: Selecta, 1967), 1253–55 (pp. 1254–55).

Juan Antonio Pérez Millán de Figueroa, ‘Divagaciones sobre el baile’, Brisas, No. 25 (May 1936), n.p.

Frueh, ‘The Fear of Flesh that Moves’, 70.

Pérez Millán de Figueroa, ‘Divagaciones sobre el baile’.

Francisco Gisbert, ‘El novecientos deportivo: la plácida era del leucocito’, Brisas, No. 19 (November 1935), n.p.

Anon., ‘Aprendamos’, Brisas, No. 14 (June 1935), n.p.

Ibid.

Carme Espinosa de los Monteros, ‘El treball per Catalunya i la dona’, La Rambla de Catalunya (esport i ciutadania), No. 16 (14 July 1930), p. 6.

‘Els esports’, in Fora de casa, Obres completes, 1430–31 (p. 1430). For almost all writers, football is a sport too far for women, even though there are women’s teams playing overseas, and there had been women’s matches played in Catalonia too. One determining reason for this is likely to have been the perceived violence and unruliness of the men’s game. Anna Maria Martínez-Sagi is eloquent on the anti-aesthetic nature of women’s football. See ‘Consideracions entorn de l’esport femení’, La Rambla (esport i ciutadania), No. 104 (11 January 1932), p. 6, and ‘La pràctica dels esports’, La Rambla (ciutadania), No. 253 (2 July 1934), p. 8.

Laia Martín Marty, Aproximació a la imatge literària de la dona al noucentisme català, Fundació Salvador Vives Casajuana 88 (Barcelona: Dalmau, 1984), 111.

Domènec Guansé, ‘La dona i la mar’, D’Ací i D’Allà, No. 176 (Spring 1934), n.p.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Guansé had written: ‘Perquè ja ho sabeu: la dona és sortida de la mar. I si no la dona pròpiament, la beutat femenina. Recordem la naixença de Venus.’

Joan Alegret, ‘Comentari a un poema de Josep Carner’, in Anàlisis i comentaris de textos literaris catalans, ed. Narcís Garolera i Carbonell, 4 vols, Manuals Curial 9 (Barcelona: Curial, 1985), IV, 48–60 (pp. 50–51).

Ibid., 49, 50.

Guansé, ‘La dona i la mar’ (1934). We might compare the remarks in this piece about the white flesh of old and the sun-kissed skin now heralded by Guansé, with the conclusions of ‘L’edat del bronze’, D’Ací i D’Allà, No. 185 (Summer 1936), n.p. The latter considers that whilst sunbathing certainly began as a fashion, it has now lost any sense of exclusivity, and has become, in effect, a religion.

Eva Tay, ‘El viejo crawl, la vieja natación …’, Brisas, No. 10 (January 1935), n.p. This issue is also given as number one of the second series.

Tay, ‘El viejo crawl’.

An important article in D’Ací i D’Allà acknowledges the cultural centring of the body, of physical culture which will prove to be a conditioning factor in the coming together of sport and art, or indeed, in their failure to do so (see ‘Reflexions de platja’): ‘Sense necessitat d’arribar a les mascarades nudistes que sols poden assolir èxit en un país ultramecanitzat i super-artificiós, com Alemanya, a tots els països d’Europa i Amèrica hi ha hagut un increment formidable de la cultura física i una atenció envers la forma humana’. German naturism, however, is anti-aesthetic. Carles Soldevila, ‘L’esforç d’Alemanya per renaturalitzar-se’, D’Ací i D’Allà, No. 73 (Summer 1933), n.p.

Tay, ‘El viejo crawl’.

Guansé, ‘La dona i la mar’.

For the role of swimming pools in the de-ruralizing of Catalonia and the education of inland areas, see note 7.

Frueh, ‘The Fear of Flesh that Moves’, 70.

Gisbert, ‘El novecientos deportivo’.

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