One foreign force, two nationalisms: How Chinese nationalism resists external LGBT human rights pressure

Abstract

International pressure on human rights can mobilize domestic social and political change but can also be manipulated and resisted, which necessitates exploring the problems and mechanisms within human rights discourses. Focusing on Chinese LGBT issues and examining Chinese sexual nationalist discourses, this study investigates how Chinese nationalism is employed to resist international LGBT rights pressure. It reveals that, although external entities have pressured LGBT rights through naming, shaming, and even direct advocacy, these external pressures face two dilemmas rooted in the principles of particularism and noninterference. These dilemmas have become significant points of contention for the Chinese state and nationalists, who respond to external LGBT rights pressure by emphasizing discourses of authenticity and security. Specifically, Chinese nationalist discourse leverages the principle of particularism to emphasize its distinctive sexual traditions and values, while employing the principle of noninterference to manipulate external LGBT rights pressure as originating from hostile foreign forces. Notably, Chinese nationalism is not a monolithic ideology; instead, it encompasses two contrasting forms of sexual nationalism—namely, macho nationalism and homonationalism. Despite differences in defining authentic Chinese sexual traditions, both forms of nationalism converge in perceiving external LGBT support as foreign forces.

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Ailsa Craig from the Department of Sociology at Memorial University of Newfoundland for taking the time to read the manuscript and provide valuable comments.

Notes

1 Refer to the Summary Prepared by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) (A/HRC/WG.6/4/CHN/3).

2 Refer to (1) Compilation prepared by the OHCHR (A/HRC/WG.6/17/CHN/2) and (2) Report of the Working Group on the UPR (A/HRC/25/5), and (3) Questions submitted in advance on the second cycle of UPR–China.

3 Refer to (1) Compilation on China (A/HRC/WG.6/31/CHN/2), (2) Summary of stakeholders’ submissions on China (A/HRC/WG.6/31/CHN/3), and (3) Advance Questions to China (First Batch) on the third cycle UPR–China.

4 Refer to the Report of the Working Group on the UPR (A/HRC/25/5/Add.1).

5 It is crucial to recognize that the statistical data related to comments by Chinese netizens in this post are approximate and lack precision. China’s speech censorship resulted in the removal of specific comments, leaving me with a collection of 3,074 out of the total 3,356 comments. Additionally, it is worth noting that there is some overlap among the categories of homonationalism, macho nationalism, and societal threat.

6 Jinlan Qi is a term originating from the early Qing Dynasty, referring to female same-sex relationships in the Pearl River Delta. Women in a Jinlan Qi bond shared a deep emotional connection and made a lifelong commitment to avoid marriage. During the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China era, these relationships took on a formalized ritual known as “self-combing.” In this ritual, women determined not to marry styled their hair in a bun. After forming a Jinlan Qi bond and pledging to remain single, they provided each other with support in managing their individual family lives.

7 Long Yang is a Chinese term used to describe male same-sex relationships, originating from the historical account of the homosexual relationship between King Anxi of Wei and Lord Long Yang.

8 “Broken sleeve” is another term in Chinese culture used to describe male same-sex relationships, stemming from the historical anecdote involving Emperor Ai of the Han dynasty and his male courtier, Dong Xian.

9 @moximoxibalabala, June 15, 2021.

10 @ Alex-LGBT, June 18, 2020.

11 The 798-Advocacy is a local Chinese LGBT initiative led by Piaoquanjun to raise awareness of the Chinese LGBT community. It involves distributing rainbow badges at Beijing’s 798 Art Zone during the 2018 IDAHOBT.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jian Fu

Jian Fu is a PhD candidate in the Department of Sociology at Memorial University of Newfoundland. His research areas focus on the globalization of sexuality, nationalism, LGBT activism, and political psychology. His work examines the intersectionality of sexuality, nationalism, and globalization at macro, meso, and micro levels.