Twin towers of cultural confusion? Contemporary crises of identity in Europe and European Islam

Abstract

This article analyses the social and cultural dislocation that Muslim communities are currently experiencing in contemporary European society against the background of an increasingly vague and ill-defined European socio-cultural identity. The principal objective is to assess whether this dislocation should be interpreted as a problem pertaining to Islam or to what extent it mirrors and is fuelled by Europe's own cultural dilemma. As such, the article examines the current socio-cultural impasse that overshadows much of the relationship between Muslim communities and Europe in order to assess the implications of this major internal challenge to the future of the European project.

Keywords:

• identity
• politics
• Islam
• Europe
• culture

Notes

1 See for example A. Bayat, ‘The Use and Abuse of Muslim Societies’, International Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World Newsletter, no. 13 (2003): 5.

2 See W. Maas, Creating European Citizens (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007).

3 See O. Roy, Globalised Islam; The Search for a New Ummah (London: Hurst, 2004).

4 See J. Sam-Sang, European Myths (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2007).

5 See F. Devji, Landscapes of the Jihad; Militancy, Morality, Modernity (London: Hurst, 2005).

6 See A. Coelho, ‘Saber quem lidera as mesquitas é vital na Europa—Entrevista con Barrie Wharton’, Público, 15 February 200, 14.

7 A good general introduction to this issue is contained in Z. Sardar, Desperately Seeking Paradise: Journeys of a Sceptical Muslim (London: Granta, 2004).

8 See for example F. Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation; Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: I.B. Tauris, 1996). See also O. Roy, Political Islam (London: I.B. Tauris, 1994) and B.A. Roberson, ‘Islam and Europe: an Enigma or a Myth?’, Middle East Journal 48, no. 2 (1994): 288–308.

9 See F. Khosrokhavar, ‘Terrorism in Europe’, International Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World Newsletter, no. 14 (2004): 11.

10 See F. Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Hamish Hamilton, 1992) and F. Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest, no. 16 (1989): 3–18. See also S. Huntington, ‘The Clash of Civilizations?’, Foreign Affairs 72, no. 3 (1993): 22–49.

11 See B. Wharton, ‘The Contemporary Islamist Movement in Egypt and Its Effect on the Relationship between Egypt and the European Union’, in National Committee for the Study of International Affairs—Proceedings of the Graduate Seminar in International Relations, ed. M. Cox (Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1996), 54.

12 The anecdotal tale of the emergence of the croissant or crescent after the Siege of Vienna as a symbol of victory against the Muslim invaders may seem a humorous one but the influence of the ‘crusader’ mentality in the social imaginary of many Western Europeans should not be under-estimated. In Spain, El Cid Campeador remains a revered and much loved national hero and the existence of Spanish towns such as Matamoros (Killers of the Moors), etc., bears living witness to a history of conflict alongside a host of annual re-enactments of the Christian victory over the Moors. Perhaps the most famous is the annual moros y cristianos pageant of Murcia.

13 This dearth of data on the internal positions of Muslims in Western Europe paradoxically contrasts with an abundance of literature emanating from the West on the position of Muslims in the Islamic world which reinforces the idea of otherness and externality that dominates the perception of Muslims in the West. The seminal work of this school is E. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon, 1978).

14 See J. Nielsen, ed., Muslims in Western Europe (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992).

15 See G. Nonneman, T. Niblock, and B. Szajkowski, eds, Muslim Communities in the New Europe (London: Ithaca Press, 1996) and M. Anwar, ‘Muslims in Western Europe’ in Religion and Citizenship in Europe and the Arab World, ed. J. Nielsen (London: Grey Seal Books, 1992), 71–94.

16 For a good theoretical discussion of this issue, see B. Tibi, Islam and the Cultural Accommodation of Social Change (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990). See also I. Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe: A Study in Cultural Encounters (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963).

17 See for example R. Dehousse, Intégration ou désintégration? Cinq thèses sur l'incidence de l'intégration européene sur les structures étatiques (San Domenico: European University Institute, Robert Schuman Centre, 1996). See also S. Tarrow, Social Movements in Europe: Movement Society or Europeanization of Conflict (San Domenico: European University Institute, Robert Schuman Centre, 1994) and B. Jordan, A New Social Contract? European Social Citizenship: Why a New Social Contract Will Probably Not Happen (San Domenico: European University Institute, Robert Schuman Centre, 1996).

18 See for example B. Szajkowski, T. Niblock, and G. Nonneman, ‘Islam and Ethnicity in Eastern Europe’ in Muslim Communities in the New Europe, ed. G. Nonneman, T. Niblock, and B. Szajkowski (London: Ithaca Press, 1996), 27–51.

19 See S. Vertovec,. (1996), ‘Muslims, the State, and the Public Sphere in Britain’ in Muslim Communities in the New Europe, ed. G. Nonneman, T. Niblock, and B. Szajkowski (London: Ithaca Press, 1996), 167–86.

20 For a good general account, see S. Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs; Iran and the Islamic Revolution (London: I.B. Tauris, 1985). See also E. Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982).

21 See M. Ruthven, A Satanic Affair: Salman Rushdie and the Wrath of Islam (London: Hogarth Press, 199). See also T. Asad, ‘Multiculturalism and British Identity in the Wake of the Rushdie Affair’, Politics and Society 18 (1990): 455–80. For more background on the Foulard affair, see P. Siblot, ‘Ah! Qu'en termes voilés ces-choses-là sont mises’, Mots, no. 30 (1992) : 5–17.

22 For further discussion of this matter, see M. al-Sayyid, ‘A Civil Society in Egypt ?’, Middle East Journal 47, no. 2 (1981): 228–47. From a more Islamist perspective, see R. al-Ghannoushi, Al-Hurriyat al-‘Amah fi al-Islam [The Freedom of the Islamic Nation] (Beirut: Centre for the Study of Arab Unity, 1993).

23 See T. Khaldi, ‘Religion and Citizenship in Islam’ in Muslims in Western Europe, ed. J. Nielsen (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992), 25–30.

24 See M. Hale Williams, The Impact of Radical Right-Wing Parties in Western European Democracies (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). See also B. Klandersman and N. Mayer, Extreme Right Activities in Europe; Through the Magnifying Glass (London: Routledge, 2005) and G. Harris, The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994).

25 See footnote 12. A multitude of similar myths regarding the Muslim ‘community’ as an ‘enemy’ still exist across the European societal landscape, and during fieldwork carried out by the author in Spain and Italy their influence was found to be still considerable and significantly under-estimated by national governments and supra-national institutions.

26 See G. Kepel, Les Banlieues de l'Islam: Naissance d'une réligion en France (Paris: Seuil, 1987). See also B. Etienne, ed., L'Islam en France (Paris: Éditions du CNRS, 1990).

27 See the recent J.G. Shields, The Extreme Right in France (London: Routledge, 2007).

28 See M. Silverman, Deconstructing the Nation: Immigration, Racism and Citizenship in Modern France (London: Routledge, 1992). For a more general treatment, see G. Ford, Fascist Europe: The Rise of Racism and Xenophobia (London: Pluto Press, 1992).

29 See J. Phillips and M. Evans, Algeria: Anger of the Dispossessed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007) and, for a good background study, A. Humbaraci, Algeria: A Revolution that Failed (London: Pall Mall Press, 1966).

30 See J. House, ‘Muslim Communities in France’ in Muslim Communities in the New Europe, ed. G. Nonneman, T. Niblock, and B. Szajkowski (London: Ithaca Press, 1996), 226.

31 See R. Diwan and F. Mohamedi, ‘Paris, Washington, Algiers’, Middle East Report 25, no. 1 (1995): 27.

32 A classic example of this is the report in the popular French weekly Le Point of 28 August 1993. The front cover of the magazine led with the headline, ‘Islam: 4 Million Muslims in France’ above the photograph of a Muslim in a gallibiya in front of a mosque. Only in the fine print of the actual article is it discussed how many of these Muslims are actually practising or whether this figure is exaggerated but it is the emotive headline which undoubtedly exerts most influence.

33 See R. Fisk, ‘Rewriting History Appeals to Arabs in Denial’, Independent on Sunday, 1 February 1998, 14.

34 See C. Peach, ‘The Muslim Population of Great Britain’, Ethnic and Racial Studies 13 (1990): 414–19.

35 See Vertovec, op. cit., 170–1.

36 For a good analysis of this controversy, see M. Halstead, Education, Justice and Cultural Diversity: An Examination of the Honeyford Affair; 1984–1985 (London: Falmer Press, 1988).

37 See Ruthven, op. cit. See also D. Bowen, ed., The Satanic Verses: Bradford Responds (Bradford: Bradford and Ilkley College, 1992) and T. Modood, ‘British Asian Muslims and the Rushdie Affair’, Political Quarterly, no. (1990): 143–60 for a discussion of the aftermath of the Rushdie affair.

38 A good example of British Muslims' rejection of multiculturalism is the marked scarcity of their presence in comparison with other minorities in many spheres of British popular culture such as the national sport, soccer, and popular music. (The number one single by the Pakistani band Cornershop was the first ever by a British Muslim group and the very name of the group reinforces the minority stereotype that exists in British society regarding its Muslim communities). On the contrary, the French national soccer team is largely made up of immigrants and French Muslims are well represented. Indeed, its star player until his recent international retirement, Zinedine Zidane, is of Algerian descent whilst French Muslims have also been vibrant actors in the world of popular music, particularly in the rai genre with Cheb Khaled being perhaps its most famous exponent.

39 Well-known examples have been his championing of the Ayatollah Khomeini's fatwa against Salman Rushdie and the speech supporting civil disobedience where British law was found to be un-Islamic which he gave at the opening of the Muslim Parliament in January 1992. He died in 1996.

40 For further discussion, see Asad, op. cit., 455–80.

41 See Y. Karakasoçlu and G. Nonneman, ‘Muslims in Germany; with Special Reference to the Turkish–Islamic Community’, in Muslim Communities in the New Europe, ed. G. Nonneman, T. Niblock, and B. Szajkowski (London: Ithaca Press, 1996), 241–67.

42 See N. Landman, Van Mat tot Minaret. De institutionalisering van de Islam in Nederland (Amsterdam: VU Uitgeverij, 1992). See also W. Shahid and P. Van Koningsveld, eds, Islam in Dutch Society: Current Developments and Future Prospects (Kampen, the Netherlands: Kok Pharos, 1992).

43 See F. Dassetto and A. Bastenier, eds, L'Islam transplanté. Vie et organisation des minorités musulmanes de Belgique (Brussels: EVO, 1984).

44 See A. Sander, ‘The Status of Muslim Communities in Sweden’, in Muslim Communities in the New Europe, ed. G. Nonneman, T. Niblock, and B. Szajkowski (London: Ithaca Press, 1996), 269–89.

45 See J. Hjarnö, ‘Causes of the Increase in Xenophobia in Denmark’, Migration 18, no. 2 (1993): 41–63. See also J. Hjarnö, ‘Muslims in Denmark’, in Muslim Communities in the New Europe, ed. G. Nonneman, T. Niblock, and B. Szajkowski (London: Ithaca Press, 1996), 291–302.

46 See B. López-García, ed., Inmigración Magrebí en España: el retorno de los moriscos (Madrid: Mapfre, 19930. See also M. Abumalham, Actas del Simposio Internacional: Comunidades Islámicas en España y en la Comunidad Europea (Madrid: Ed. Trotta, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 1993). In fieldwork carried out by the author amongst Muslim immigrants of Moroccan and Algerian origin in Spain, many spoke of the latent hostility towards Islam which is fuelled by the power of the historical prejudices that exist in Spanish society and how assimilation or integration could only be at best superficial under these circumstances. The tragic events of 11 March 2004, the Madrid train bombings, have obviously exacerbated this situation.

47 See Y. Christidis, ‘The Muslim Minority in Greece’, in Muslim Communities in the New Europe, ed. G. Nonneman, T. Niblock, and B. Szajkowski (London: Ithaca Press, 1996), 153–66. The problems associated with Muslim communities in Greece are accentuated by the often strained relationship between Turkey and Greece and the presence of an indigenous Muslim minority in Western Thrace which is regarded by Athens as being pro-Turk. A continuing influx of Muslim refugees from Albania has been a further problematic factor in the contemporary debate over the role of Muslim communities in Greece.

48 See S. Allievi, Il Ritorno dell Islam. I Musulmani in Italia (Rome: Edizioni Lavoro, 1993). In fieldwork carried out by the author of this article in southern Italy, growing Albanian immigration was found to be having a significant effect on the perception of Islam, and, in the context of the rise of the Lega Nord, Islam was seen by immigrants as a fundamental element of socio-political and cultural rather than religious identity.

49 See B. Akçapar, Turkey's New European Era (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006). See also B. Van Bruinessen, ‘Millî Görüş in Western Europe’, International Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World Newsletter, no. 14 (2004): 53 and A. Çarkoĝlu and B. Rubin, Turkey and the European Union (London: Routledge, 2003).

50 This is particularly true in the Italian case and it was a recurring theme throughout the author's research there. For further discussion, see Szajkowski et al., op. cit., 27–51.

51 For further discussion of this question, see Harris, op. cit.

52 See G. Michael, The Enemy of my Enemy: The Alarming Convergence of Militant Islam and the Extreme Right (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006).