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Abstract
The field of media development, as an intervention in conflict-affected societies, is both growing, and divided. This article identifies and discusses some emerging divisions in the sub-field of journalist training. On the one hand is a ‘modernisation’ approach, geared towards the implantation of western-style precepts and methods for reporting conflicts. On the other is a critical pedagogical approach intended to enable participatory media development. In the latter, ‘minority world journalism’ is effectively problematised, especially around assumptions about the role of the journalist vis-à-vis conflict and whether it is proper, permissible and/or practically possible for editors and reporters to set out to contribute to peace. The contestation this divide has occasioned partly recapitulates the UNESCO media debate of the late 1970s and early 1980s. The concept of peace journalism is now attracting attention, both as a form of critical pedagogy in journalist training and as a potential rallying point for reviving calls for structural reform in the world information and communication order.
Notes
1 Mark Frohardt and Jonathan Temin, Use and Abuse of Media in Vulnerable Societies, Special Report no. 110 (Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace, October 2003).
2 Philip Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You that Tomorrow We Will be Killed with Our Families: Stories from Rwanda (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1998).
3 Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001).
4 The Editors, ‘The Times and Iraq’, New York Times, May 26, 2004.
5 Opinion Research Business, ‘More than 1,000,000 Iraqis murdered’, news release, September 2007, http://www.opinion.co.uk/Newsroom_details.aspx?NewsId=78 (retrieved April 17, 2008). Other estimates range from 400,000 excess deaths in three years, by the Iraqi Health Ministry, to 654,965 in the same time frame, in the second of two studies by a team of epidemiologists from Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, and published in the medical journal, The Lancet.
6 David Manning, ‘The Secret Downing Street Memo’, Sunday Times (London), May 1, 2005.
7 Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber, Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of Propaganda in Bush's War on Iraq (New York: Tarcher/Penguin, 2003), 78–9.
8 Michael Moore, Dude, Where's My Country? (London: Allen Lane, 2003).
10 Ross Howard, ‘The Media's Role in War and Peacebuilding’, in Media in Security and Governance, ed. M. Caparini (Baden-Baden: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 2004), 147–8.
9 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect, Report of the ICISS (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001).
11 John Marston, ‘Neutrality and the Negotiation of an Information Order’, in Forging Peace: Intervention, Human Rights and the Management of Media Space, ed. M.E. Price and M. Thompson (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002), 177–200.
12 Mark Thompson and Monroe E. Price, ‘Introduction’, in Forging Peace, 1–40.
13 Ibid., 18.
15 Daniel Lerner, ‘Notes on Communication and the Nation State’, The Public Opinion Quarterly 37, no. 4 (1973–74): 543–4.
14 Karl W. Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press-Wiley, 1953).
16 H.D. Wu, ‘The World's Windows to the World: An Overview of 44 Nations’ International News Coverage', in International News in the 21st Century, ed. A. Sreberny and C. Paterson (Eastleigh: John Libbey Publishing, 2004), 95–110.
17 Ibid., 95.
18 Sean MacBride, Many Voices, One World: Report of the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems (Paris: UNESCO, 1980).
19 UNESCO, ‘Declaration on Fundamental Principles Concerning the Contribution of the Mass Media to Strengthening Peace and International Understanding, to the Promotion of Human Rights and to Countering Racialism, Apartheid and Incitement to War’, UNESCO document 20C/20 (revised November 21, 1978), http://www.casi.org.nz/statements/decmedia.htm.
20 Jake Lynch and Annabel McGoldrick, Peace Journalism (Stroud: Hawthorn Press, 2005); and Dov Shinar, ‘Peace Journalism – The State of the Art’, in Peace Journalism – The State of the Art, ed. Dov Shinar and Wilhelm Kempf (Berlin: Regener, 2007), 199–210.
21 Shinar, ‘Peace Journalism – The State of the Art’, 200.
22 Lynch and McGoldrick, Peace Journalism, 28–31.
23 Ibid., 224 (emphasis added).
24 UNESCO, ‘Declaration on Fundamental Principles’.
25 Kaarle Nordenstreng, ‘Myths About Press Freedom’, Brazilian Journalism Research 3, no. 1 (2007): 20.
26 MacBride, Many Voices, One World, 177.
27 David Loyn, ‘Witnessing the Truth’, Open Democracy (February 20, 2003), http://www.opendemocracy.net/media-journalismwar/article_993.jsp (retrieved April 10, 2008).
28 Ibid.
29 Thompson and Price, ‘Introduction’, 18.
31 Richard Dowden, ‘The Media's Failure: A Reflection on the Rwandan Genocide’, in The Media and the Rwandan Genocide, ed. Allan Thompson (London: Pluto Press, 2007), 253.
33 Philip G. Zimbardo, ‘A Situationist Perspective on the Psychology of Evil: Understanding How Good People are Transformed into Perpetrators’ in The Social Psychology of Good and Evil: Understanding Our Capacity for Kindness and Cruelty, ed. Arthur Miller (New York: Guilford, 2004), 24.
30 S.T. Lee and C.C. Maslog, ‘War or Peace Journalism in Asian Newspapers’, Journal of Communication 55, no. 2 (2005): 311–29; and Jake Lynch, ‘What's so Great About Peace Journalism?’, Global Media Journal, Mediterranean Edition 1, no. 1 (2006), http://globalmedia.emu.edu.tr/spring2006/inagural_issues/7.%20Jake%20Lynch%20Whats%20so%20great%20about2.pdf (retrieved September 28, 2007).
32 Lee Ross, ‘The Intuitive Psychologist and His Shortcomings’, in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 10, ed. L. Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 173–220.
34 Annabel McGoldrick and Jake Lynch, ‘From the Front Lines – Journalism in Times of War’, review of The First Casualty, by Phillip Knightley, Harvard International Review 24, no. 1 (2002): 74–5.
35 Johan Galtung and Jake Lynch, Reporting Conflict – New Directions in Peace Journalism (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Press, forthcoming).
36 Ibid.
37 ICISS, The Responsibility to Protect, 19.
38 Ibid., 4.
40 Michel Chossudovsky, ‘IMF-World Bank Policies and the Rwandan Holocaust’, Third World Network Features (January 26, 1995), http://www.hartfordhwp.com/archives/35/033.html.
39 Jake Lynch, Reporting the World (Taplow: Conflict and Peace Forums, 2002), 5.
41 Peter Uvin, Aiding Violence: The Development Enterprise in Rwanda (West Hartford: Kumarian Press, 1998), 147.
42 Mark Curtis, Web of Deceit (London: Vintage, 2003), 4.
45 Robert A. Hackett and Yuezhi Zhao, eds., ‘Media Globalization, Media Democratization – Challenges, Issues and Paradoxes’, in Democratizing Global Media (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), 5.
43 Paul Rogers, Global Security and the War on Terror (London: Routledge, 2008), 167–8.
44 Susan Ross, ‘Peace Journalism: Constructive Media in a Global Community’, Global Media Journal, Mediterranean Edition 2, no. 2 (2007): 77.
46 Gar Smith, ‘Free Speech is Frozen out in Costa Rica: The University for Peace versus Radio for Peace International’, The Edge (January 31, 2004).
47 Ibid.
48 James A. Paul, ‘UN Reform: An Analysis’, Global Policy Forum, 1996, http://www.globalpolicy.org/reform/analysis.htm.
49 Cited in Lynch and McGoldrick, Peace Journalism, 195–6.
51 UPeace Institute for Media, Peace and Security, ‘The Media's Role in Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding’, Course Manual (Costa Rica: Upeace, 2005).
52 Ibid.
53 Quoted in Jake Lynch and Annabel McGoldrick, ‘Peace Journalism in Poso’, Inside Indonesia, no. 66 (2001), http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit66/peace1.htm.
54 MacBride, Many Voices, One World, p. 157.
55 Abiodun Onadipe and David Lord, African Media and Conflict (London: Conciliation Resources, 1999), 2.
50 Hackett and Zhao, ‘Media Globalization, Media Democratization’, 5.
56 Heinrich Boell Foundation, Media and Conflict – Promoting Peace: A Symposium with Journalists from Eritrea and Ethiopia (Berlin: Heinrich Boell Foundation, 1999), 65.
57 Ross Howard, An Operational Framework for Media and Peacebuilding (Vancouver: Institute for Media, Peace and Civil Society, 2002), 3.
58 See, for example, Philip Hammond, ‘Andrew Gallix Interviews Philip Hammond’, 3:AM Magazine (February 2001), http://www.3ammagazine.com/politica/feb2001_kosovo.html (retrieved April 25, 2008).
59 Hall, ‘Representation and the Media’ (Media Education Foundation Lecture Transcript, 1997), http://www.mediaed.org/handouts/pdfs/HALL-REPMEDIA.pdf, 21 (retrieved July 23, 2007).
60 Jake Lynch, ‘A Course in Peace Journalism’, in Peace Journalism – The State of the Art, ed. Dov Shinar and Wilhelm Kempf (Berlin: Regener, 2007), 161–86.
61 Lloyd, ‘Indonesia: Reporting for Peace Training’, in The Power of the Media – A Handbook for Peacebuilders, ed. R. Howard, F. Rolt, H. van de Veen, and J. Verhoeven (Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention in cooperation with the European Centre for Common Ground and the Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, 2003), 118.
62 Ibid., 119.
63 Thomas Hanitzsch, ‘Situating Peace Journalism in Journalism Studies: A Critical Appraisal’, Conflict and Communication Online 6, no. 2 (2007), http://cco.regener-online.de/2007_2/pdf/hanitzsch.pdf.
64 Johan Galtung, Jake Lynch, and Annabel McGoldrick, Reporteando conflictos: Una introducción al periodismo de paz [Reporting Conflicts: An Introduction to Peace Journalism] (Puebla, Mexico: Montiel & Soriano Editores, 2006), 244.
65 John Paul Lederach, ‘Justpeace’, in People Building Peace, ed. Paul van Tongeren, Malin Brenk, Marte Hellema, and Juliette Verhoven (Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999), 34.
66 James Deane, ‘Communication for Social Change: Why Does It Matter?’ in Communication for Social Change Anthology: Historical and Contemporary Readings, ed. Alfonso Gumucio-Dagron and Thomas Tufte (South Orange, NJ: Communication for Social Change Consortium, 2006), 523.
67 Franz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (London: Penguin Books, 1967), 33.
68 Paulo Freire, ‘The Pedagogy of the Oppressed’, in Approaches to Peace – A Reader in Peace Studies, ed. David P. Barash (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 143.
69 Ibid., 141.
70 Ibid., 143.
72 Ibid., 129.
73 Ibid.
71 Chambers, Whose Reality Counts? Putting the First Last (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1997), 115.
74 Shinar, ‘Peace Journalism – The State of the Art’, 199–210.
75 Anita L. Wenden, ‘Educating for a Critically Literate Civil Society: Incorporating the Linguistic Perspective into Peace Education’, Journal of Peace Education 4, no. 2 (2007): 175.
76 Ibid.
77 Majid Tehranian, ‘Peace Journalism: Negotiating Global Media Ethics’, Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 7 (2002): 58–83.
78 Shinar, ‘Peace Journalism – The State of the Art’, 200.
79 Mary B. Anderson, Do No Harm – How Aid Can Support Peace or War (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999), 1.