http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4599-3582
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ABSTRACT
Interventions such as courts and truth commissions are elements of an internationally established transitional justice (TJ) toolkit. Such measures are rarely sustainable or in place after the occurrence of mass violence. Those affected then have to themselves get active to restore social relationships. Civil society plays an important role in these transitions, but civil society also needs to be scrutinised to deconstruct reductionist conceptualisations in TJ discourses. Taking the Moluccan conflict and peace process as a case study, this paper looks into alternative ways that communities seek to transition from violence to peace and in the process ask for forms of justice not exclusively related to physical violence. Instead, communities focus on continuing social injustices that they believe underlie this violence. Analysis of the case study promotes an understanding of TJ not primarily as transitional, but as transformative and performative. In this way locally driven transitional justice mechanisms look not only into the past and legacies of violence, but also into legacies of harmony and peace and the emergence of integrative means in the future. The case study shows that forms of art in Maluku were turned into a force that aimed to reintegrate society divided by violence and unite society to resist exploitation and suppression by outside forces. Young people played important roles in this dynamic. The search for reconciliation in Maluku was in this way transformed into a broader struggle against structural violence and destructive outside interventions and for social justice and sustainable peace.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the peace provocateurs, Ambon Bergerak and members of the SaveAru movement for sharing their insights and ideas on peacebuilding and a more just future for Maluku and Indonesia.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
ORCID
Birgit Bräuchler http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4599-3582
Notes
1 See e.g. Birgit Bräuchler, The Cultural Dimension of Peace. Decentralization and Reconciliation in Indonesia (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).
2 Renee Jeffery, Lia Kent, and Joanne Wallis, ‘Reconceiving the Roles of Religious Civil Society Organizations in Transitional Justice: Evidence from the Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste and Bougainville’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 11 (2017): 380.
3 Paul Gready and Simon Robins, ‘From Transitional to Transformative Justice: A New Agenda for Practice’, The International Journal of Transitional Justice 8 (2014): 350.
4 Thomas Dick, ‘Decolonising Labour Markets: The Australian South Sea Island Diaspora and the Role of Cultural Expression in Connecting Communities’, in Current Issues in Transitional Justice. Towards a More Holistic Approach, eds. N. Szablewska and S.-D. Bachmann (Cham: Springer, 2015), 113.
5 Gready and Robins, ‘Transformative Justice’.
6 Peter D. Rush, ‘Preface. After Atrocity: Foreword to Transition’, in The Arts of Transitional Justice. Culture, Activism, and Memory after Atrocity, eds. P.D. Rush and O. Simic (New York: Springer, 2014), vii.
7 Gready and Robins, ‘Transformative Justice’, 359, 361.
8 Helen Berents, ‘An Embodied Everyday Peace in the Midst of Violence’, Peacebuilding 3, no. 2 (2015): 186.
9 Galtung, Johan, ‘Violence, Peace and Peace Research’, Journal of Peace Research 6, no. 1 (1969): 167–91.
10 John Braithwaite et al., Anomie and Violence: Non-truth and Reconciliation in Indonesian Peacebuilding (Canberra: ANU E Press, 2010); Bräuchler, Cultural Dimension of Peace.
11 Jacky Manuputty, ‘Membuka Pintu Dialog: Pembelajaran Dari Pengalaman ELAIEM (unpublished ms)’, 2010; Jacky Manuputty, ‘Titik-titik balik di jalan orang basudara’, in Carita Orang Basudara. Kesaksian dan Rekaman Sejarah atas Tragedi Kemanusiaan di Maluku (pre-print version), ed. J. Manuputty (Ambon: Lembaga Antar Iman Maluku, 2014).
12 Jacky Manuputty, ‘Lembaga Antar Iman Maluku / Maluku Interfaith Institution (PowerPoint Presentation)’, 2006; Manuputty, ‘Membuka Pintu Dialog’; Manuputty, ‘Titik-titik balik’.
13 Laura McLeod, Jovana Dimitrijevic, and Biliana Rakocevic, ‘Artistic Activism, Public Debate and Temporal Complexities: Fighting for Transitional Justice in Serbia’, in The Arts of Transitional Justice. Culture, Activism, and Memory after Atrocity, eds. P.D. Rush and O. Simic (New York: Springer, 2014), 37.
14 Susanne Buckley-Zistel, ‘Transitional Justice als Weg zu Frieden und Sicherheit: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen’ (SFB-Governance Working Paper Series Nr. 15, 2008), 3.
15 Ruti G. Teitel, Transitional Justice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
16 Bräuchler, Cultural Dimension of Peace, 2–4.
17 Paul Gready and Simon Robins, ‘Rethinking Civil Society and Transitional Justice: Lessons from Social Movements and ‘New’ Civil Society’, The International Journal of Human Rights 21, no. 7 (2017): 956; Natalia Szablewska and Sascha-Dominik Bachmann, ‘Current Issues and Future Challenges in Transitional Justice’, in Current Issues in Transitional Justice. Towards a More Holistic Approach, eds. N. Szablewska and S.-D. Bachmann (Cham: Springer, 2015), 355.
18 Gready and Robins, ‘Transformative Justice’, 341.
19 See e.g. Kieran McEvoy and Lorna McGregor, eds., Transitional Justice from Below: Grassroots Activism and the Struggle for Change (Oxford/Portland, Oregon: Hart, 2008); Rosalind Shaw and Lars Waldorf, eds., Localizing Transitional Justice: Interventions and Priorities After Mass Violence (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010).
20 Bräuchler, Cultural Dimension of Peace, 11–24.
21 Gready and Robins, ‘Transitional to Transformative’, 346; Natalia Szablewska and Clara Bradley, ‘Social Justice within Transitional Justice: The Case of Human Trafficking and Sex-Work in Cambodia and Myanmar’, in Current Issues in Transitional Justice. Towards a More Holistic Approach, eds. N. Szablewska and S.-D. Bachmann (Cham: Springer, 2015), 265.
22 McLeod et al., ‘Artistic Activism’; Szablewska and Bachmann, ‘Current Issues’, 348.
23 Hugo van der Merwe, ‘Conclusion: The Role of Local Civil Society in Shaping Transitional Justice in Africa’, in Advocating Transitional Justice in Africa. The Role of Civil Society, eds. J. Brankovic and H.V.D. Merwe (Cham: Springer, 2018), 214.
24 Chris Hann, ‘Civil Society’, in Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, eds. A. Barnard and J. Spencer (London/New York: Routledge, 2010), 122.
25 Jeffery et al., ‘Reconceiving Civil Society’, 379–80.
26 David Backer, ‘Civil Society and Transitional Justice: Possibilities, Patterns and Prospects’, Journal of Human Rights 2, no. 3 (2003).
27 Ibid., 311.
28 Gready and Robins, ‘Rethinking Civil Society’, 957, 960–1.
29 Drawing on and expanding examples provided by Thania Paffenholz, ‘Civil society’, in Routledge Handbook of Peacebuilding, ed. R. Mac Ginty (London/New York: Routledge, 2013), 352.
30 Thania Paffenholz, ‘Civil Society and Peacebuilding (Summary of Results for a Comparative Research Project)’ (CCDP Working Paper 4, 2009), 14.
31 Roger Mac Ginty, ‘Indigenous Peace-Making Versus the Liberal Peace’, Cooperation and Conflict 43, no. 2 (2008): 144; Oliver P. Richmond, ‘Becoming Liberal, Unbecoming Liberalism: Liberal-Local Hybridity via the Everyday as a Response to the Paradoxes of Liberal Peacebuilding’, Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 3, no. 3 (2009): 325.
32 Alpaslan Oezerdem and Sukanya Podder, Youth in Conflict and Peacebuilding: Mobilization, Reintegration and Reconciliation (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 7.
33 Siobhan McEvoy-Levy, ‘Youth’, in Routledge Handbook of Peacebuilding, ed. R. Mac Ginty (London/New York: Routledge, 2013), 297–9, 166.
34 McEvoy-Levy, ‘Youth’; Oezerdem and Podder, Youth, 209; Pruitt, Youth Peacebuilding, 1–9.
35 Heather Elliot, Children and Peacebuilding: Experiences and Perspectives (Melbourne: World Vision Australia, 2002).
36 Caitlin Mollica, ‘The Diversity of Identity: Youth Participation at the Solomon Islands Truth and Reconciliation Commission’, Australian Journal of International Affairs 71, no. 4 (2017): 381.
37 Kimberly Theidon, ‘Intimate Enemies: Reconciling the Present in Post-War Communities in Ayacucho, Peru’, in After Mass Crime: Rebuilding States and Communities, eds. B. Pouligny, S. Chesterman, and A. Schnabel (Tokyo/New York: United Nations University Press, 2007), 97.
38 Bräuchler, Cultural Dimension of Peace, 32.
39 Jasmina Brankovic and Hugo van der Merwe, ‘Editors’ Preface’, in Advocating Transitional Justice in Africa. The Role of Civil Society, eds. J. Brankovic and H.V.D. Merwe (Cham: Springer, 2018), ix; Merwe, ‘Conclusion’, 221–2.
40 Gready and Robins, ‘Transformative Justice’.
41 Gready and Robins, ‘Rethinking Civil Society’, 957, 972.
42 Gready and Robins, ‘Transformative Justice’, 340, 356.
43 Gready and Robins, ‘Rethinking Civil Society’, 956.
44 Ibid., 958.
45 Ibid., 963, 965.
46 Szablewska and Bachmann, ‘Current Issues’, 349.
47 Rush, ‘After Atrocity’, vii.
48 Ibid., viii.
49 McLeod et al., ‘Artistic Activism’, 26–7.
50 Arild Bergh and John Sloboda, ‘Music and Art in Conflict Transformation: A Review’, Music and Arts in Action 2, no. 2 (2010): 6.
51 Herbert C. Kelman, ‘Reconciliation as Identity Change: A Social-Psychological Perspective’, in From Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation, ed. Y. Bar-Siman-Tov (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
52 Nilanjana Premaratna and Roland Bleiker, ‘Arts and Theatre for Peacebuilding’, in The Palgrave Handbook of Disciplinary and Regional Approaches to Peace, eds. O.P. Richmond, S. Pogodda, and J. Ramovic (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 84–5.
53 Craig Zelizer, ‘The Role of Artistic Processes in Peace-Building in Bosnia-Herzegovina’, Peace and Conflict Studies 10, no. 2 (2003): 62, 67.
54 Premaratna and Bleiker, ‘Arts and Theatre’, 82–3.
55 Zelizer, ‘Artistic Processes’, 67.
56 Ibid., 83.
57 Ibid.
58 Olivera Simic, ‘Stories We Tell: Documentary Theater, Performance, and Justice in Transition’, in Post-Communist Transitional Justice. Lessons from Twenty-Five Years of Experience, eds. L. Stan and N. Nedelsky (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 253.
59 Kersty Hobson, ‘Enacting Environmental Justice in Singapore: Performative Justice and the Green Volunteer Network’, Geoforum 37 (2006): 673.
60 Ibid., 674.
61 Tazim Jamal and Rob Hales, ‘Performative Justice: New Directions in Environmental and Social Justice’, Geoforum 76 (2016): 178; Nadia Siddique, Hadi Marifat, and Sari Kouvo, ‘Culture, Theatre and Justice: Examples from Afghanistan’, in The Arts of Transitional Justice. Culture, Activism, and Memory after Atrocity, eds. P.D. Rush and O. Simic (New York: Springer, 2014), 130.
62 McLeod et al., ‘Artistic Activism’, 40; Simic, ‘Documentary Theater’, 253.
63 Simic, ‘Documentary Theater’, 255.
64 Lesley J. Pruitt, ‘Music, Youth, and Peacebuilding in Northern Ireland’, Global Change, Peace and Security 23, no. 2 (2011): 215; Lesley J. Pruitt, Youth Peacebuilding: Music, Gender, and Change (Albany: SUNY Press, 2013), 9.
65 Bergh and Sloboda, ‘Music and Art’, 6; Siddique et al., ‘Culture, Theatre, Justice’, 127; Zelizer, ‘Artistic Processes’, 10.
66 Bergh and Sloboda, ‘Music and Art’, 11–2.
67 Premaratna and Bleiker, ‘Arts and Theatre’, 90.
68 Yoyok Widoyoko, ed. The Wonderful Islands Maluku: Membangun Kembali Maluku Dengan Nilai-Nilai dan Khazanah Lokal, serta Prinsip Entrepreneurial Government, Beragam Potensi dan Peluang Investasi (Jakarta/Ambon: Gibon Books/Pemprov Maluku, 2008).
69 See e.g. R.Z. Leirissa et al., Ambonku: doeloe, kini, esok (Ambon: Pemerintah Kota Ambon, 2004); Lembaga Kebudayaan Daerah Maluku, The Magnificant Underwater World of Ambon Island, Maluku – Indonesia (Ambon: LKDM, 2010); M. Noer Muis et al., Amazing Ambon – Above, Under and Beyond (Jakarta: NMbooks, 2010); Karel Albert Ralahalu, Otonomi Daerah Di Tengah Konflik: Merencang Success Story Implementasi Otonomi Daerah di Provinsi Maluku (Ambon: Media Otda, 2006).
70 See also Admin, ‘Paparisa Ambon Bergerak, Rumah Bersama Komunitas Kreatif’, Ambon Ekspres, October 30, 2015.
71 International Crisis Group, ‘Indonesia: Trouble Again in Ambon’, Asia Briefing No. 128, 2011.
72 Bräuchler, Cultural Dimension of Peace, 96–8.
73 Jacky Manuputty et al., eds. Carita Orang Basudara. Kisah-kisah Perdamaian dari Maluku (Ambon: Lembaga Antar Iman Maluku, 2014); Jacky Manuputty et al., eds., Basudara Stories of Peace from Maluku. Working Together for Reconciliation (Clayton, VIC: Monash University Publishing, 2017).
74 Gerry van Klinken, ‘PREFACE. Ale Rasa Beta Rasa – What You Feel, I Feel: Compiling History Together in Ambon’, in Basudara Stories of Peace from Maluku. Working Together for Reconciliation, eds. J. Manuputty et al., (Clayton, VIC: Monash University Publishing, 2017), xv.
75 Yayasan Bakti, INSPIRATOR Maluku Hiphop & Ambon (produced 2012, published in YouTube 2016), Forum Kawasan Timur Indonesia, 2012/2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FG4o_zspgeY (accessed November 13 2016), author translation.
76 Jacky Manuputty, ‘The Turning Point on the Road of Basudara Relationships’, in Basudara Stories of Peace from Maluku. Working Together for Reconciliation, eds. J. Manuputty et al., (Clayton, VIC: Monash University Publishing, 2017), 116.
77 Molukka Hiphop Community, ‘Profile’, Ambon, 2008.
78 Jan Jagodzinski, Music in Youth Culture. A Lacanian Approach (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 64.
79 Kathrin Lock, ‘Who is Listening? Hip Hop in Sierra Leone, Liberia and Senegal’, in Resounding International Relations: On Music, Culture and Politics, ed. M.I. Franklin (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 142; Pruitt, Youth Peacebuilding, 54.
80 Rudi Fofid, Biarkan Katong Bakalae: antologi puisi penyair Maluku (Ambon: Kantor Bahasa Maluku, 2013).
81 Weslly Johannes, Beta Sayang Kenangan (27.8.2015) Molucca Project, 27.8.2015, 2015, http://www.moluccaproject.com/2015/08/weslly-johannes-beta-sayang-kenangan.html (accessed February 7 2018).
82 Revelino Berry, Rudi Fofid, and Weslly Johannes, eds., Revolusi Cendrawasih. Kumpulan puisi perlawanan terhadap upaya pembabatan hutan Aru (Ambon: www.savearuisland.com, 2013); Revelino Berry, Rudi Fofid, and Weslly Johannes, eds., Mata Aru. Antologi Puisi Pembelaan Untuk Aru (Ambon: www.savearuisland.com, 2013).
83 Hobson, ‘Environmental Justice’; Jamal and Hales, ‘Performative Justice’.
84 Compare Judith Butler, ‘Performative Agency’, Journal of Cultural Economy 3, no. 2 (2010): 147.
85 Zelizer, ‘Artistic Processes’, 67.
86 See e.g. Birgit Bräuchler, ‘Christian-Muslim Relations in Post-Conflict Ambon, Moluccas: Adat, Religion and Beyond’, in Religious Diversity in Muslim-majority Southeast Asia: Areas of Toleration and Conflict, eds. B. Platzdasch and J. Saravanamuttu (Singapore: ISEAS, 2014); Birgit Bräuchler, ‘Modes of Interreligious Coexistence and Civility in Maluku’, in Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia, ed. V. Gottowik (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2014); Bräuchler, Cultural Dimension of Peace.
87 Oezerdem and Podder, Youth, 216.
88 For a critical evaluation see Bräuchler, Cultural Dimension of Peace.
89 Robin L. Turner, ‘Youth, “Tradition” and Peace Building: Mobilising for Just Governance in Rural South Africa’, Peacebuilding 3, no. 2 (2015): 138–9; Jagodzinski, Music in Youth Culture.