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Abstract
This essay examines the gendered explanations for the prisoner abuse scandal at Abu Ghraib. Specifically, I examine how mainstream news media's selective focus on Lynndie England encouraged the public to read Abu Ghraib primarily as a gender crisis rather than as a crisis in US military culture. This framing not only deflected attention away from the other soldiers involved in the scandal (particularly the men who were involved) but also diverted criticism away from more comprehensive discussions regarding the US military's use of abuse and torture, the unlawful detainment of suspected terrorists, and the erosion of civil liberties in the post-9/11 era. Moreover, these representations of Abu Ghraib as a gender crisis prompted new criticism regarding gender integration in the military and constructed feminism as the new villain in the American melodrama.
Acknowledgements
A version of this essay was presented at the 2006 National Communication Association Conference in San Antonio, TX. The author would like to thank Bonnie Dow, Dylan Wolfe, John Sloop, and the anonymous reviewers for their instructive comments.
Notes
1. Dan Rather, “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Ghraib_prisoner_abuse-_ref-main614063.shtml_1Abuse Of Iraqi POWs By GIs Probed, 60 Minutes II Has Exclusive Report On Alleged Mistreatment,” 60 Minutes II (CBS), April 28, 2004.
2. “Iraq Prisons; Another Mess within a Mess,” Star Tribune, May 4, 2004, 14A.
3. Seymour M. Hersh, “Torture at Abu Ghraib: American Soldiers Brutalized Iraqis. How Far Up Does the Responsibility Go?” The New Yorker, May 10, 2004, 42.
4. Hersh, “Torture at Abu Ghraib.” See also Antonio M Taguba, “Article 15–6: Investigation of the 800th Military Police Brigade,” April 2004, 1–50. See http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/library/reports/2004/800-mp-bde.htm (accessed July 21, 2008).
5. Hersh, “Torture at Abu Ghraib.”
6. Between March 2003 and October 2005, nine soldiers, including three women, were court-martialed for their participation in the abuse at Abu Ghraib. Both former specialist Megan Ambuhl, not featured in any of the circulated photographs, and former specialist Sabrina Harmon, photographed standing over a corpse, were dishonorably discharged. Harmon was also sentenced to six months in prison. Additionally, former Brigadier General Janis Karpinski, who headed Abu Ghraib, was relieved of duty and demoted to the rank of colonel. Although these women were implicated in the Abu Ghraib scandal, news media's selective attention on England serves as the focus for this analysis. I cannot completely account for many news sources’ fascination with England; however, I posit that the photographs of England garnered significant attention because they provided visual evidence of her transgression (only one other woman was featured in the photographs) and more importantly, because they featured a female soldier actively engaging in the abuse.
7. Using the Lexis-Nexis database, I gathered over 1,000 national newspaper and news magazine articles printed between April 2004 and October 2006 that include the terms “England” and “Abu Ghraib.” After sorting my results based on relevance and length, I examined the first 300 articles, including headline articles and articles printed in editorial and opinion sections of major US newspapers and news magazines.
8. Elisabeth Anker, “Villains, Victims, and Heroes: Melodrama, Media, and September 11th,” Journal of Communication 55 (2005): 26.
9. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Making of the World Order (New York: Simon & Shuster, 1996), 32. See also Samuel P. Huntington, Who Are We? The Challenges to America's National Identity (New York: Simon & Shuster, 2004).
10. Robert L. Ivie, “Fighting Terror by Rite of Redemption and Reconciliation,” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 10 (2007): 223. See also Herbert W. Simon, “From Post-9/11 Melodrama to Quagmire in Iraq: A Rhetorical History,” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 10 (2007): 183–194; Philip Wander, “The Rhetoric of American Foreign Policy,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 70 (1984): 339–61; John M. Murphy, “‘Our Mission and Our Moment’: George W. Bush and September 11th,” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 10 (2003): 607–32.
11. Carol A. Stabile and Deepa Kumar, “Unveiling Imperialism: Media, Gender and the War on Afghanistan,” Media, Culture & Society 27 (2005): 771–79.
12. Kevin J. Ayotte and Mary E. Husain, “Securing Afghan Women: Neocolonialism, Epistemic Violence, and the Rhetoric of the Veil,” NWSA Journal 17 (2005): 113.
13. Karen Ross and Sujata Moorti, “War Reporting Through a Gendered Lens,” Feminist Media Studies 5 (2005): 361.
14. George W. Bush, “Saddam Hussein Must Leave Iraq within 48 Hours” (The Cross Hall: Washington, DC, March 17, 2003); George W. Bush, “State of the Union Address” (United States Capitol, Washington, DC, January 20, 2004). My purpose here is not to downplay the oppressive conditions suffered by women in Afghanistan and Iraq. Rather, I am critiquing the ways in which women's oppression is selectively represented by US political figures and mass media.
15. Dana L. Cloud, “To Veil the Threat of Terror: Afghan Women and the Clash of Civilizations in the Imagery of the US War on Terror,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 90 (2004): 297.
16. Cloud, “To Veil the Threat of Terror,” 286.
17. Cynthia Enloe, “The Gendered Gulf,” in Seeing Through the Media, ed. S. Jeffords and L. Rabinovitz (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 293.
18. Deepa Kumar, “War Propaganda and the (Ab)uses of Women: Media Constructions of the Jessica Lynch Story,” Feminist Media Studies 4 (2004): 302.
19. Donald Rumsfeld did not submit his resignation until November 2006, nearly three years after the investigation of Abu Ghraib began.
20. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), 23.
21. Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limitations of “Sex” (New York: Routledge, 1993), 30–32; John M. Sloop, Disciplining Gender: Rhetorics of Sex Identity in Contemporary US Culture (Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004), 25–29.
22. John M. Sloop, “Disciplining the Transgendered: Brandon Teena, Public Representation, and Normativity,” Western Journal of Communication 64 (2000): 179–180.
23. Sloop, “Disciplining the Transgendered,” 178–182.
24. Sloop, “Disciplining the Transgendered,” 182.
25. Sloop, “Disciplining the Transgendered,” 182.
26. Faye Bowers, “Abu Ghraib's Message for the Rank and File,” Christian Science Monitor, May 6, 2005, 03.
27. Carla Power, “All the War's a Stage,” Newsweek, June 20, 2005, 62.
28. Ellen Goodman, “The Downside of Equality,” The Boston Globe, September 30, 2005, A21.
29. “An Unneeded Black Eye: Mistrial in Lynndie England Case Could Be Used Against United States in Arab World,” Buffalo News, May 13, 2005, A8; Evan Thomas, “Explaining Lynndie England,” Newsweek, May 15, 2004, 636; Neva Chonin, “The Lynndie Hop,” The San Francisco Chronicle, August 29, 2004, 30.
30. Travis A Sherman, “Calculating the Correctness of Torture Can Be Difficult,” St. Petersburg Times, December 26, 2005, 23A.
31. Richard Sisk, “Lynndie's New Life on a Short Leash in Brig,” Daily News, October 9, 2005, 20.
32. “Sadr's Group May Become Political,” St. Petersburg Times, July 13, 2004, 6A; David McLemore, “Lynch, England have Become Symbols of Women in the Military,” The Dallas Morning News, May 18, 2004, n.p.; Jay Price, “Abuse ‘Shocked’ MP Commander,” The News & Observer, August 7, 2004, A1; Richard Roeper, “The News is Different When Women are Involved,” Chicago Sun-Times, May 12, 2004, 11; Bob Dart, “Pride Turns to Pain in Hometown on MPs,” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, May 13, 2004, 1A; Davis, “The Net,” 13A.
33. Maki Becker, “G.I. in Torture Case Hires Legal Top Gun,” Daily News, May 9, 2004, 4.
34. “Iraq Symbols, Scapegoats,” St. Petersburg Times, May 10, 2005, 8A.
35. Lynn Duke, “A Woman Apart; For Fellow Soldiers, Lynndie England is Best Viewed from a Distance,” The Washington Post, September 19, 2004, D01.
36. James Dao, “From Picture of Pride to Symbol of Abuse,” The New York Times, May 7, 2004, A1; Dennis Cauchon, Debbie Howlett, and Rick Hampson, “Abuse Scandal Meets Disbelief in Hometowns, USA Today, May 7, 2004, 6A; Neil Graves, “The Mother of All Boors—The Pregnant Leash Gal ‘Showing,‘” The New York Post, June 22, 2004, 8.
37. Thomas, “Explaining Lynndie England,” 636.
38. John W. Gonzalez, “Judge Rules Out use of comments by Pfc. England to Interrogators; Testimony Shows She Didn't Have the Capacity to Fully Understand Rights,” The Houston Chronicle, July 9, 2005, A8.
39. Duke, “A Woman Apart,” D.01.
40. Duke, “A Woman Apart,” D.01.
41. Barbara Bennett, “Perfect Mother or Artist of Obscenity? Narrative and Myth in Qualitative Analysis of Press Coverage of Andrea Yates Murders,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 29 (2005): 9–29.
42. Bennett, “Perfect Mother,” 15.
43. Michael A. Fuoco, “Trial Case Soldier in Different Light. England Hardly Resembles Woman in Notorious Photographs,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, August 8, 2004, A-1.
44. Duke, “A Woman Apart,” D. 01.
45. “Lynndie's Mugging as a Momma,” Daily News, October 27, 2004, 18.
46. Daniel Ruth, “Defining Act for Rummy and Friends,” Tampa Tribune, May 9, 2004, 2.
47. Ralph Blumenthal, “Sentencing Hearing Starts for G.I. Featured in Abu Ghraib Pictures,” The New York Times, May 4, 2005, 14; Cohen, “Victimizer or Victim,” A23; Gonzalez, “Judge Rules Out,” A8.
48. “Compiled from News Dispatches,” Newsday, September 24, 2005, 22.
49. John Bacon, William M. Welch, Alan Levin, and Toni Locy, “Jet Lands Safely with Jammed Nose Gear,” USA Today, September 22, 2005, 3A.
50. “Lynndie's Story: The Whole Picture on Women; Central Figure in Abu Ghraib Proof the Female Soldiers can Bring Shame as well as Honor,” Grand Rapid Press, October 3, 2005, A7; Ellen Goodman, “War Atrocities Don't Have Gender Bias,” The Times Union, October 1, 2005, A7; Thomas, “Explaining Lynndie England,” 636.
51. Robert Barr, “Calls for Rumsfeld's Resignation Amid Outrage Over Photos,” The Associated Press, May 7, 2004; Craig Jarvis, “Soldier Points to Superiors; Lawyers Defending Private Complains about Poor Copies of Prison Photos,” The News & Observer, May 13, 2004, A1.
52. Cohen, “Victimizer or Victim,” A23.
53. Cohen, “Victimizer or Victim,” A23.
54. Ellen Goodman, “Big Picture on Lynndie England is not Pretty,” The Augusta Chronicle, September 30, 2005, A05; Bob Dart, “Iraqi Prisoner Abuse: Georgian Loyal to friend Who Gave Her a Home,” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, May 14, 2004, A9; David Olinger, “Lawyers: Reservist a Scapegoat,” The Denver Post, May 11, 2004, A-01.
55. “Passing the Buck,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, August 8, 2004, B02.
56. Sherry Colb, “The Conviction of Andrea Yates: A Narrative of Denial,” Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy 10 (2003): 141.
57. Murphy, “Our Mission,” 616.
58. Susan Milligan, “Bush Says He's Sorry for Abuse,” The Boston Globe, May 7, 2004, A1.
59. Michelle Hiskey, “Iraqi Prison Abuse Issue Jars US Ideal of Women,” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, May 9, 2004, 8A.
60. Cal Thomas, “Co-ed Training May Help Explain Prison Abuse in Iraq,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, May 18, 2004, 13A.
61. Mary Leonard, “Abuse Raises Gender Issues; Women Soldiers’ Role is Debated,” The Boston Globe, May 16, 2004, A17.
62. Linda Chavez is the president of the Center for Equal Opportunity, a think tank that opposes various forms of affirmative action, including military integration.
63. Leonard, “Abuse Raises Gender Issues,” A17.
64. Leonard, “Abuse Raises Gender Issues,” A17.
65. Leonard, “Abuse Raises Gender Issues,” A17.
66. Shannon L. Holland, “The Dangers of Playing Dress-up: Popular Representations of Jessica Lynch and the Controversy Regarding Women in Combat,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 92 (2006): 46.
67. Holland, “The Dangers of Playing Dress-up,” 46.
68. Hiskey, “Iraqi Prison Abuse,” 8A.
69. Mary Jo Malone, “You've Come A Long Way, Baby, Was It For This?” St. Petersburg Times, May 7, 2004, 1B.
70. Malone, “You've Come A Long Way, Baby,” 1B.
71. Fears, “Military Families,” A01.
72. Holland, “The Dangers of Playing Dress-up,” 46.
73. Hersh, “Torture and Abu Ghraib,” 42.
74. Susan Nielsen, “Enter the New Kind of Ugly American,” The Sunday Oregonian, May 9, 2004, F03.
75. Samara Kalk, “Angela Davis: US is Backing Torture; Vietnam Era Militant at UW,” Capital Times, April 28, 2006, C1.
76. “President Keeps Focus on 9/11; Kerry Defends Criticism,” The Seattle Post-Intelligencer, March 12, 2004, A6. These were phrases that Bush used often after the 9/11 attacks and during the 2004 presidential campaign.
77. George W. Bush “Remarks On the South Lawn” (United States Capitol: Washington, DC, September 16, 2001).