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Abstract
The paper attempts to shift the issue of the ethnic minorities in Myanmar to centre-stage. For some time, the discussion of Myanmar politics have been largely focused on Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League of Democracy (NLD), which should not be the case because many of Myanmar's problems are connected to the ethnic minorities and can only be resolved with their cooperation and support, and not just the NLD. Myanmar has also been labeled as a ‘weak’ or ‘failed state’ but the regime remains strong. Any approach to transform Myanmar from a weak to a strong state would first require an understanding of the underlying causes of the internal conflicts in Myanmar. By describing and explaining the root and evolution of the conflict between the central government and the minority groups, this paper hopes to contribute to this understanding.
Notes
1. Hideyoki Takano, The Shore beyond Good and Evil: A Report from Inside Burma's Opium Kingdom (Reno: Kotan Publishing, 2002), p. 51.
2. “Non-Burman Front Revived Amid Dialogue Upsurge,” Shan Herald Agency for News, January 20, 2001, FBIS-EAS-2001-0125.
3. David I. Steinberg, “Burma Under the Military: Towards a Chronology,” Contemporary Southeast Asia Vol. 3, No. 3 (December 1981), p. 245. A recent book which captures contemporary Myanmar well is Emma Larkin, Finding George Orwell in Burma (New York: Penguin Books, 2004).
4. Mary P. Callahan, Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2004), p. xiv.
5. “Another Year of House Arrest for Suu Kyi,” The Sunday Times, May 28, 2006.
6. Takano, The Shore beyond Good and Evil, p. 154.
7. Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar: Interim Report of the Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar [Report]. Accessible via http://www.ncgub.net, cited in Christopher B. Roberts, Myanmar and the Argument for Engagement: A Clash of Contending Moralities?, IDSS Working Paper, No. 108, March 2006, p. 3.
8. See for examples, Martin Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity (London: Zed Books, 1991); Bertil Lintner, Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency since 1948 (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1999).
9. For details of the Index, methodology and analysis: www.foreignpolicy.com.
10. Svetlana Durdevic-Lukic, “Bringing the State Back: Strong Versus Weak States,” International Problems No. 4 (2005). www.diplomacy.bg.ac.yu.
11. See www.foreignpolicy.com.
12. Durdevic-Lukic, “Bringing the State Back.”
13. “Fragile States now Number 26, up from 17,” The Straits Times, September 15, 2006.
14. The other three are: Laos, Cambodia and Timor Leste.
15. See www.foreignpolicy.com.
16. Richard Jackson, “The State and Internal Conflict,” Australian Journal of International Affairs Vol. 55, No. 1 (2000), pp. 70–71.
17. Muthiah Alagappa, “The Anatomy of Legitimacy,” in Muthiah Alaggapa, ed., Political Legitimacy in Southeast Asia: The Quest for Moral Authority (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), pp. 14–31.
18. Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe, “Burma: The Depoliticization of the Political,” in Alagappa, ed., Political Legitimacy in Southeast Asia, p. 173.
19. “Governance Barometer: Policy Guidelines for Good Governance” (Website of South Africa's National Party), www.gdrc.org.
20. See http://info.Worldbank.org for the studies, Government Matters III: Governance Indicators for 1996–2002; Governance Matters IV: Governance Indicators for 1996–2004 and Governance Matters V: Governance Indicators for 1996–2005.
21. See http://info.Worldbank.org, Government Matters III, IV, V.
22. For the Worldwide Governance Indicators Country Snapshot: Myanmar, see http://info.Worldbank.org.
23. Political Situation of Myanmar and Its Role in the Region (Office of Strategic Studies, Ministry of Defence, Union of Myanmar (27th edition, Revised and Updated, May 2001). www.myanmar-information.net.
24. Political Situation of Myanmar and Its Role in the Region.
25. For the full text, see Hugh Tinker, Burma: The Struggle for Independence 1944–1948, Vol. II (London: HMSO, 1984), pp. 404–405; Maung Maung, Burma and General Ne Win (Rangoon: Religious Affairs Department Press, 1969), p. 189.
26. ENSCC Policy Paper: The New Panglong Initiative: Rebuilding the Union of Burma. www.ibiblio.org; Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change (Minority Rights Group International, 2002), p. 13; for the etymology of the names “Burma” and “Myanmar,” see Callahan, Making Enemies, p. xvi.
27. Callahan, Making Enemies, p. xvi.
28. Robert H. Taylor, “Perceptions of Ethnicity in the Politics of Burma,” Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, Vol. 10, No. 1 (1982), pp. 8–9.
29. Taylor, “Perceptions of Ethnicity in the Politics of Burma,” pp. 8–9.
30. Taylor, “Perceptions of Ethnicity in the Politics of Burma,” pp. 8–9.
31. Salai Za Ceu Lian, “The Meaning of Panglong Agreement versus the Shan's declaration of breaking up from the Union”, Chinland Guardian, April 20, 2005. Accessible via www.chro.org.
32. Political Situation of Myanmar and Its Role in the Region (Office of Strategic Studies, Ministry of Defence, Union of Myanmar, 27th edition, Revised and Updated, May 2001), p. 50.
33. Robert H. Taylor, “An Undeveloped State: The Study of Modern Burma's Politics,” Working Paper No. 28, April 1983, Department of Economics and Political Studies, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, pp. 20–22.
34. Robert H. Taylor, Perceptions of Ethnicity in the Politics of Burma, p. 9.
35. Political Situation of Myanmar and Its Role in the Region, p. 50.
36. Political Situation of Myanmar and Its Role in the Region, p. 50.
37. With regard to the assassination of Aung San, there is no evidence that the British were involved as claimed by the “official” history. See Aung San Suu Kyi, Aung San of Burma (Edinburgh: The University of Queensland Press, 1984), pp. 50–51.
38. Taylor, “An Undeveloped State,” pp. 20–21.
39. Maung Maung, Burma and General Ne Win (Rangoon: Religious Affairs Department Press, 1969), p. 250.
40. Maung, Burma and General Ne Win, p. 265.
41. Maung, Burma and General Ne Win, see Chapter 10.
42. Maung, Burma and General Ne Win, pp. 312–313.
43. Robert H. Taylor, “Burma's National Unity Problem and the 1974 Constitution,” Contemporary Southeast Asia Vol. 1, No. 3 (December 1979), p. 236.
44. Michael Leifer, Dilemmas of Statehood in Southeast Asia (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1972), pp. 18–19.
45. Taylor, “Perceptions of Ethnicity in the Politics of Burma,” p. 19.
46. Taylor, “Perceptions of Ethnicity in the Politics of Burma.”
47. For an analysis of the 1974 constitution, see Taylor, “Burma's National Unity Problem and the 1974 Constitution” and Josef Silverstein, “From Soldiers to Civilians: The New Constitution of Burma in Action,” in Josef Silverstein, ed., The Future of Burma in Perspective: A Symposium, Ohio University Center for International Studies, Papers in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series No. 35, Southeast Asia Program, 1974, pp. 80–92.
48. Silverstein, “From Soldiers to Civilians,” p. 83.
49. Taylor, “Burma's National Unity Problem and the 1974 Constitution,” p. 238.
50. Silverstein, “From Soldiers to Civilians,” p. 92.
51. Taylor, “Perceptions of Ethnicity in the Politics of Burma,” p. 20.
52. David I. Steinberg, “Lessons for Martyrs' Day in Burma,” International Herald Tribune, July 19, 2000.
53. ENSCC Policy Paper: The New Panglong Initiative: Rebuilding the Union of Burma. Accessible via www.ibiblio.org
54. The following summary is culled from: Taylor, “Perceptions of Ethnicity in the Politics of Burma,” pp. 15–19; John Haseman, “Burma's Myriad National Security Challenges: The Historical Background and Contemporary Events,” Australian Defence Studies Centre, Working Paper No. 50 (1997), pp. 9–18; Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change (Minority Rights Group International, 2002), pp. 15–20.
55. Haseman, “Burma's Myriad National Security Challenges,” p. 8; Takano, The Shore beyond Good and Evil, p. 157.
56. “Military Defeats Spark Call for Dumping of Karen Leader,” The Straits Times, February 17, 1997.
57. “Ethnic Conflict Clouds Myanmar,” Asian Wall Street Journal, April 20–22, 2001.
58. For details, see Ashley South, Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: The Golden Sheldrake (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003).
59. Smith, Burma (Myanmar, p. 18).
60. See Roberts, Myanmar and the Argument for Engagement; “Hunting the Junta: A New Report Targets Burma's Military Rulers for Crimes against its Minority Ethnic Groups,” Time Asia, May 23, 2005; “South-East Asia: Burma a Nightmare for Minorities,” Inter Press Service News Agency, June 9, 2005.
61. “Wa Troops Reportedly Increasing in Numbers Along Border,” Shan Herald Agency, January 24, 2001, SWB/FE/4054/B/2; Roberts, Myanmar and the Argument for Engagement, p. 11.
62. Takano, The Shore beyond Good and Evil, pp. 8–12, 259–260.
63. “Shan Army States ‘Mistranslated Peace Terms’,” BurmaNet News, March 18, 2000, SWB/FE/3794/B/1.
64. Smith, Burma (Myanmar), pp. 18–20; South, Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma, Chapter 20.
65. Steinberg, “Lessons for Martyrs' Day in Burma”; “Troops Deployed Near Thai Border to Suppress Karen Separatists,” Siam Rat, November 6, 2000, SWB/FE/3991/B/1; “Karen Group Restates Conditions for Entering Peace Talks with Burmese Government,” Burmese Opposition Radio, January 18, 2001, SWB/FE/4050/B/1.
66. Mary P. Callahan, “Democracy in Burma: The Lessons of History,” Political Legacies and Prospects for Democratic Development in Southeast Asia: Burma and Indonesia, NBR Analysis, Vol. 9, No. 3 (1998), p. 17.
67. Callahan, “Democracy in Burma,” p. 17; “Cutting a Deal in Burma: Rebels Prosper from Cease-fires with Generals,” International Herald Tribune, November 18–19, 2000.
68. Roberts, Myanmar and the Argument for Engagement, p. 11.
69. Steinberg, “Lessons for Martyrs' Day in Burma.”
70. Ananda Rajah, Burma: Protracted Conflict, Governance and Non-Traditional Security Issues, IDSS Working Paper, No. 14, May 2001, p. 3.
71. “Armed Ethnic Groups Warn Rangoon of Retaliation if Offensive Continues,” Burmese Opposition Radio, February 24, 2001, SWB/FE/4081/B/1.
72. “Burma: Ethnic Groups Meet UN Special Envoy, Claim Lack of Political Freedom,” BurmaNet News in English, October 13, 2001.
73. Tin Maung Maung Than, “Myanmar: Challenges Galore but Opposition Failed to Score,” Southeast Asian Affairs (2006), (Singapore: ISEAS), p. 193.
74. “Non-Burman Front Revived Amid Dialogue Upsurge,” Shan Herald Agency for News, January 20, 2001, FBIS-EAS-2001-0125.
75. “Ethnic Conflict Clouds Myanmar,” Asian Wall Street Journal, April 20–22, 2001.
76. “Ethnic Conflict Clouds Myanmar.”
77. “Ethnic Conflict Clouds Myanmar.”
78. Callahan, Making Enemies, pp. 226–228.
79. Aung San Suu Kyi, The Voice of Hope (London: Penguin Books, 1997), pp. 150–151.
80. South, Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma, p. 332.
81. “Myanmar Restarts Charter Talks,” The Straits Times, February 18, 2005; For details, see Tin Maung Maung Than, “Myanmar.”
82. “Junta, Opposition Blame Each Other for Yangon Blasts,” The Straits Times, May 9, 2005.
83. “Shan Rebel Armies Merge to Fight Myanmar Junta,” The Straits Times, May 23, 2005.
84. “Myanmar Junta Warns of Attacks,” The Straits Times, May 5, 2006; Tin Maung Maung Than, “Myanmar.”
85. “Myanmar's Killing Fields?,” Today, April 12, 2006; “2,000 Refugees Flee Myanmar Troops,” The Straits Times, April 29, 2006.
86. For details, see particularly “Part 1: Perspectives on Recent Political Developments” in Trevor Wilson, ed., Myanmar's Long Road to National Reconciliation (Singapore: ISEAS, 2006),
87. “Another Year of House Arrest for Suu Kyi,” The Sunday Times, May 28, 2006.
88. “Power Shift in Yangon,” Today, September 25, 2006 and “Myanmar Leader Paving Way for his Successor,” The Straits Times, September 25, 2006.
89. “Myanmar to Restart Charter Work,” The Straits Times, September 4, 2006.
90. “Little Hope for Change in Myanmar,” The Strait Times, September 18, 2006.
91. “Myanmar Slams UN,” Today, October 11, 2006.
92. Josef Silverstein, “Get Burma's Minorities Talking,” International Herald Tribune, February 5, 2001.
93. “Power-sharing the Key to Peace in Myanmar,” The Straits Times, August 25, 2004.
94. “Myanmar Constitutional National Convention to be Completed Soon: State Leader,” Xinhua, January 3, 2007, Burmanet.
95. See Tin Maung Maung Than, “Myanmar”; Bruce Matthews, “Myanmar's Human and Economic Crisis and Its Regional Implications,' Southeast Asian Affairs (2006) (Singapore: ISEAS).
96. Rajah, Burma, p. 12.
98. Tin Maung Maung Than, “Myanmar,” p. 202 and footnote 65.
99. “Thailand Fears Drug Lord War in Myanmar,” The Sunday Times, July 16, 2000.
100. “Yangon Blasts: Accusation Surprises Thais,” The Straits Times, May 17, 2005.
101. “Thaksin Visits Junta Leader in Myanmar,” The Straits Times, August 3, 2006.
102. “Chinese Company to Explore Oil, Gas in the Myanmar Offshore Areas,” Xinhua, January 15, 2007, www.chinaview.cn.
103. “China: Myanmar's Situation Poses no Threat to International Peace, Security,” Xinhua, January 13, 2007. www.chinaview.cn.
104. Jackson, “The State and Internal Conflict,” p. 75.
105. Murray Print et al., eds., Civil Education for Civil Society (London: Asean Academic Press, 1999), p. 34.
106. “Not Drifting with the Tide but Evolving with Each Step Forward,” The Straits Times, October 7, 2006. Speech by Lee Hsien Loong at the 6th Asian-European Editors' Forum (emphasis added).