![Sample our Behavioral Sciences journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/110801/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Behavioral-Sciences.jpg"})
Notes
1 Joe is named for Joseph Pulitzer.
2One of the earliest accounts of the division between masculine and feminine is found in Pythagoras's table of opposites. Pythagoras, a philosopher and mathematician from the island of Samos (ca. 530 BCE), emphasized form and structure and laid particular stress on limit (“the intelligible, determinate, and measurable as opposed to the fantastic, vague, and shapeless”; Guthrie, Citation1975, p. 36). Pythagoras was, as was Freud, a dualist and drew up two columns of principles. In one column he placed limit, odd, one, right, male, at rest, straight, light, good, and square. In the other he placed unlimited, even, plurality, left, female, moving, crooked, darkness, bad, oblong (Guthrie, Citation1962). This is an early account, not only of the deep divide between masculinity and femininity, but also of moral characteristics being associated with them. Masculinity is perfectly shaped, whereas femininity is imperfectly shaped. Both the divide and the values attributed to each pole have deepened as they have been perpetuated within Western intellectual traditions and cultures. Gender has ossified (Diamond, Citation1997).
3Although there are endless variations of each, gender follows sex (or the reverse; see Laqueur, Citation1990) in being dual, that is, the categories used at present are twofold. There are infinitely many ways of being marked as male and as female, and even the intersexed are a variation, an excess, of this sexual difference. Being sexed, sexuated, is contrasted to being nonsexuated, and sexual difference is, as prototype theory shows, a category not grounded in (though related to) biology or nature but in human cognitive practices (Lakoff, Citation1987).
4In classical epistemology essential properties defined the category, the concept. Categories were assumed to be like abstract containers and only those things that shared certain essential properties were included in the same “container”/category (Lakoff, Citation1987). According to this view, the category of masculinity was defined by penetration, conquest, possession/mastery (Manninen, Citation1992) or by the functions of impregnation, protection, and provision (Gilmore, Citation1990). Wittgenstein provides a simile for those who worry about the robustness of nonessentialist, family resemblance concepts. Like the strength of a thread, spun by fiber twisted upon fiber, which resides not in some one fiber running through its whole length but in the overlapping of many fibers, so the strength of the concept of masculinity resides in overlapping similarities and differences (cf. Wittgenstein, Citation1958).
5“The torque in the Torqued pieces has nothing to do with simply twisting geometric figures: if the Torqued Ellipses were just twisted elliptical drums, they would produce no affective distinction between sensation and object space, no unnerving severance of container and contained. Here Serra was working with a continuous radius, linking together opposing figures in a single force or wave. He could then reverse the major and minor axes such that inner and outer are no longer parallel, inducing confusions between the experience of the works' curvature derived from walking on the ground and what is happening on top. The result is that the curvature seems to be constantly changing, and so implicates one in a kind of centrifugal force” (Rajchman, Citation2007, p. 69).