Ochratoxin a: Its Cancer Risk and Potential for Exposure

Abstract

Ochratoxin A (OA) is a naturally occurring mycotoxin known to contaminate a variety of foods and beverages. The cancer risk posed by OA was reviewed as relevant to human exposure, regulatory activities, and risk management efforts occurring worldwide, particularly in Europe. OA moves through the food chain and has been found in the tissues and organs of animals, including human blood and breast milk. Results from the National Toxicology Program's rodent bioassays show significantly increased incidence of mammary gland tumors in female rats and kidney tumors in male and female rats given OA orally. Liver tumors in female mice fed OA in the diet have also been observed. In humans, OA exposure has been most often associated with the kidney disease Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN), symptoms of which include tumors of the kidney and urinary tract. No epidemiological studies have yet adequately evaluated the cancer risk of OA in human populations. Studies have shown OA to be genotoxic as well as immunotoxic, although its mode of action is not fully understood. Organizations and agencies in many countries are currently promulgating standards for OA in foods and beverages. Increased efforts in farm management and food safety are being made to mitigate the risks to public health posed by OA. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is currently evaluating data on OA levels in domestic and imported commodities but has not established official regulations or guidelines for OA in the U.S. food supply.

Funding for this work was provided by the US Department of Agriculture Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service. Any findings, conclusions or recommendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Notes

Funding for this work was provided by the US Department of Agriculture Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service. Any findings, conclusions or recommendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

^a References: 1, Frank (1991); 2, Golinski et al. (1991); 3, Kane et al. (1991); 4, Ewaidah (1992); 5, Tangni et al. (2002).

^b Imported beer from Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Mexico, the Netherlands, and Scotland.

^a References: 1, Pittet et al. (1996); 2, J⊘rgenson (1998); 3, Fazekas et al. (2002); 4, Taniwaki et al. (2003).

^b Includes Australia, Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Russia, Salvador, Slovakia, Switzerland, Thailand, United States, and miscellaneous (NS).

^c Switzerland, Russia, Australia.

^d Hungary.

^a Median = 0.116.

^a References: 1, Micco et al. (1991); 2, Breitholtz-Emanuelsson et al. (1993); 3, Micco et al. (1995); 4, Jonsyn et al. (1995); 5, Postupolski and Karlowski (1998); 6, Hult et al. (1982); 7, Fukal and Reisnerova (1990); 8, Breitholtz et al. (1991); 9, Creppy et al. (1991); 10, Hald (1991); 11, Fuchs et al. (1991); 12, Golinski et al. (1991); 13, Frohlich et al. (1991); 14, Petkova-Bocharova and Castegnaro (1991); 15, Breitholtz-Emanuelsson et al. (1994); 16, Kovacs et al. (1995); 17, Scott et al. (1998); 18, Filali et al. (2002); 19, Iavicoli et al. (2002); 20, Grosso et al. (2003); 21, Degen et al. (2003); 22, Skaug (2003).

^a References: 1, Abouzied et al. (2002); 2, Fazekas et al. (2002); 3, Zimmerli and Dick (1996); 4, Beretta et al. (2002); 5, Thuvander et al. (2001).

∗The last data point was originally reported as 17, which is most likely a misprint from the original text since only 16 animals were used in each group.

∗See note on p.17

^a References: 1, Hohler (1998); 2, van Egmond (1991); 3, Fazekas et al. (2002); 4, Beretta et al. (2002).