Internationalization of Hospitality and Tourism Higher Education: A Perspective from Thailand

Abstract

Due to globalization and the rapid changes occurring in higher education, the concept of the internationalization of higher education has been widely discussed and well documented, particularly in North America and Europe. However, the literature on the subject of internationalization in relation to Asian context is still limited. The purpose of this article is to review various aspects of internationalization from Western perspectives and apply these to Thai higher education, focusing particularly on hospitality and tourism. Various aspects of these elements are examined and discussed in relation to hospitality and tourism higher education in Thailand.

KEYWORDS:

• Internationalization
• higher education
• hospitality and tourism education
• Thailand

INTRODUCTION

Globalization and the evolution of the knowledge-based economy have caused dramatic changes to the character and functions of higher education in most countries around the world (Mok, 2007). Today, an increase in student and staff mobility, the popularity of an international dimension in the curriculum, emphasis on international research collaborations, the expansion of international strategic alliances, and global academic networks have become increasingly prominent trends (Mok, 2005; Taylor, 2004). Internationalization in higher education is argued to be an educational development process or educational reform for contemporary universities to respond to the growing impacts of globalization and liberalization of trade in educational services (Knight, 1999; Mok, 2007; Naidoo, 2006; Sangpikul, 2007; Schoorman, 1999). According to the literature, internationalizing higher education contributes many benefits to the academic community, including staff development, students' learning experiences, curriculum development, research collaboration, international cooperation, and intercultural understanding (Knight, 2007; Komolmas, 1999; Mok, 2007; Sangpikul, 2007).

In relation to the hospitality and tourism industry, there is a need for internationalizing the program and curriculum with aims to prepare and equip students for challenges of globalization. Academics argue that internationalization of hospitality and tourism higher education in Thailand should be viewed as a proactive strategy that education providers should embrace if they are to prepare graduates for careers in a global business environment (Wisansing, 2005). The justification for this argument is based on several factors. First, the influence of globalization and free trade of education services have made it a necessity for Thai educational providers to develop the curricula and prepare graduates for professional careers in a competitive business environment (Sangpikul, 2007; Wisansing, 2005). Second, the hospitality and tourism industry is highly diverse and international oriented. Graduates who work in the industry (e.g., hotels, airlines, tour companies) are expected to be involved with international tourists and business travelers from different cultural backgrounds (Hobson & Josiam, 2004). The industry needs managers skilled in intercultural communication, especially given that the diversity of its customers and its workforce are increasingly diverse, and expects them to be able to work in a multicultural environment (Wijesinghe & Davies, 2001, as cited in Black, 2004). Third, previous research indicates that the quality and qualifications of Thai graduates may not meet the standards required by the industry (Chaisawat, 2000; Chaisawat & Boonchu, 2005).

For these reasons, the internationalization of higher education should be viewed as critical for hospitality and tourism programs in Thai education. Although the concept of internationalization has been adopted and implemented in Thailand for several years, the literature on this subject in relation to Thai higher education is still limited. This results in somewhat ambiguous interpretation and implementation among Thai university administrators and faculty members. The purpose of this article is to investigate the concept of internationalization of higher education and examine its potential applications to Thai higher education by using the example of hospitality and tourism higher education (in international programs). It is hoped that an examination of the internationalization concept from Western perspectives, with appropriate adoption, will contribute to the development of Thai higher education. The discussion will add to existing literature on internationalization of higher education, particularly on the context of Thailand's hospitality and tourism education.

INTERNATIONALIZATION AND ITS CHALLENGES

Although there is no universal definition of internationalization, it is important to have a common understanding of the term so we can discuss and refer to the same phenomenon. Knight (2003), one of the most eminent scholars in international education, defines internationalization at the national/sector/institutional levels as “the process of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension (e.g., a perspective, activity or program) into the purpose, functions or delivery of postsecondary education” (Knight, 2003, p. 2). Knight points out that the definition of internationalization should be generic enough to apply to many different countries, cultures, and education systems. It should be appropriate for use in a broad range of contexts (national/sector level and institutional level) and for comparative purposes across countries and regions of the world (Knight, 2003, p. 2). In this article, the above definition will be used as the foundation of internationalizing Thai higher education with an aim to develop quality, standardized, and competitive hospitality and tourism programs to the international market.

Although internationalization generates several benefits to higher education and is desired in most universities, academics have addressed their concerns about the way Thailand has adopted it into our educational systems. After critically analyzing how Western knowledge has been transferred to Thai society during the past decades, Sinlarat (2005) has raised a concern regarding the adoption of Western knowledge into Thai higher education. He urged that university faculties and students together should seek and create a new body of knowledge in Thai society. The knowledge can be new, traditional, or a fusion of both (Sinlarat, 2005). He argued that Thailand should move away from a “knowledge-receiving culture” to a “knowledge-producing one.” Sinlarat (2007) further added that Thai educational leaders should carefully adopt the global trend of internationalization into the Thai educational system, at the same time developing appropriate learning and teaching approaches in Thai higher education. Likewise, Mok (2007) addressed the contributions of internationalization (e.g., developing/improving program quality and standard of higher education). However, he urged that we should guard against copying the system without proper adaptation and contextualization. Mok further pointed out that internationalizing universities do not necessarily copy what has been popular in the West predominated by Anglo-Saxon models. Instead, the essence of internationalization is to promote intercultural understanding and to deepen international cooperation (Mok, 2007, p. 449). In order to keep this issue in mind and respond to the changing world of globalization and the influence of internationalization, this article carefully reviews the concept of internationalization and examines its potential application to Thai higher education by focusing on the development of program quality, students' learning opportunities, faculty development, and global understanding. More important, Thai academics should recognize that internationalization has mutual benefits; that is, internationalization provides opportunities for Thais to learn from others and improve ourselves; at the same time, others learn about and better understand us, thus contributing to intercultural understanding and further academic development. This should be the highlight of the article and the essence of internationalization.

KEY ELEMENTS CONTRIBUTING TO THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

In order to provide a foundation for the internationalization of Thai higher education, it is necessary to determine key elements contributing to internationalization. This article reviews relevant literature on the subject of internationalization of higher education (Black, 2004; Haigh, 2002; Hale & Tijmstra, 1990; Sharma & Roy, 1996; Shetty & Rudell, 2002) and identifies the four key elements contributing to internationalization (Table 1): (a) faculty, (b) students, (c) curriculum development, and (d) international alliances. The four key elements and their aspects have been developed and proposed in relation to the Thai context on the basis of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the major functions (teaching, research, and services) of a university, as proposed by Knight (2003). Table 1 presents the proposed key elements of internationalization and their aspects in relation to Thai higher education, particularly for international programs. It should be noted that there are generally two types of hospitality and tourism programs in Thai higher education. One is a Thai program using the Thai language as the medium of instruction. The other is an international program using English as the medium of instruction. In this article, the international program is the emphasis since the main discussion is involved with international faculty, overseas student exchanges, and joint programs with foreign universities with the goal to develop the quality and standard of Thailand's international education.

TABLE 1 Key Elements and Their Aspects of Internationalizing Thai Higher Education

Elements	Aspects/approaches of internationalization
1. Faculty	1.1. Staff recruitment and human resource development
	- Recruiting staff who graduated from abroad
	- Recruiting foreign staff
	- Providing scholarships for overseas postgraduate study (e.g., a master's or PhD)
	- Providing staff training or short courses overseas
	- Exchanging faculty members (e.g., teaching or research)
	1.2. Staff professional development
	- Presenting papers at international conferences
	- Applying for overseas research scholarships
	- Publication with colleagues abroad (journal articles)
	- Undertaking joint research with foreign researchers/academics
	- Coauthors with colleagues abroad (e.g., book chapters, textbooks)
2. Students	2.1. Student-oriented approach
	- Increasing the number of international students
	- Providing scholarships for overseas students
	- Exchanging students (with affiliated universities)
	2.2. Activity-oriented approach
	- Study abroad programs
	- Overseas internships
	- Overseas study tours
	- Other international-related programs (with any international organization)
3. Curriculum development	3.1. Infusing international dimensions into existing courses
	- Adding international contexts to courses
	- Assigning research projects or theses involving international/multicultural contexts
	3.2. Adding international/multicultural courses to the curriculum
	- Offering courses that involve more than one country
	- Offering international hospitality and tourism courses in the curriculum
	- Offering foreign language courses in the curriculum
	3.3. Offering degrees in international hospitality and tourism management
	3.4. Developing joint programs with foreign universities
4. International alliances	4.1. Faculty (e.g., exchanging faculty members)
	4.2. Students (e.g., exchanging students, student internships, study abroad programs)
	4.3. Curriculum (e.g., setting up joint programs)
	4.4. Other activities
	- Co-organizing international conferences/seminars
	- Co-research projects and other academic cooperation with international universities, organizations, or associations

As shown in Table 1, the four key elements of internationalization and their aspects will be examined and discussed in the context of hospitality and tourism higher education in Thailand. It should be noted that while the internationalization of higher education is part of educational reforms, each educational institution has to decide its own way of appropriate adoption depending on university policies, objectives, and availability of resources.

Faculty

The first element affecting internationalization of higher education is faculty. A review of the literature suggests several approaches for faculty internationalization (e.g., Black, 2004; Sharma & Roy, 1996; Shetty & Rudell, 2002). For a better understanding and appropriate application to Thai higher education, the ideas of internationalizing faculty members can be summarized in two categories. The first approach discusses faculty internationalization in terms of staff recruitment and human resource development, while the second approach addresses the issues concerned with the professional development of staff.

Staff recruitment and human resource development

According to the literature, faculty should be exposed to international environments or be involved with the experience of studying or working outside a single national culture (Black, 2004; Hale & Tijmstra, 1990; Shetty & Rudell, 2002). Academics argue that faculty members who have overseas experience would contribute to students' learning and curriculum development since they can share their knowledge, opinions, and experiences with students and faulty members (Black, 2004; Hale & Tijmstra, 1990). In relation to Thai higher education (international program), staff with overseas experience (studying or working) are expected to communicate effectively in English since English is used as the medium of instruction in international programs in Thailand. Teaching staff with international experience are expected to have deeper understanding of international aspects and the diversity of student bodies from different cultures. They may add some of their experiences to the course content (lecture) when appropriate. In Thai higher education, the recruitment of teaching staff with an international background may be pursued in two ways, based on the recruitment policy of the author's university. The first is recruiting Thai staff who have graduated from abroad and the second is employing foreign staff. Foreign staff are generally hired through one of two sources: direct job advertisements and affiliated universities. Through the latter means Thai universities may contact their overseas affiliated universities for exchanging faculty members or inviting visiting professors. Academics argue that international staff contribute to the learning experience of students (Black, 2004; Railmond & Halliburton, 1995). When lecturing, for example, they may talk about their working experiences or study abroad and then relate it to the context of the class. During lectures, they may also talk about the differences between international and Thai hospitality and tourism industries (based on their experiences) and discuss from a standpoint of knowledge with students. This type of learning will stimulate students' learning and broaden their knowledge and perspectives.

In addition to contributing to students' learning, international staff will also significantly benefit faculty members (Black, 2004; Railmond & Halliburton, 1995; Sangpikul, 2007). When working together, both international and Thai staff can learn about each others' teaching experiences, research interests, and national contexts. This is an important process for developing a better understanding and interrelationship among teaching staff from different cultural backgrounds. According to the literature (Black, 2004; Hale & Tijmstra, 1990), there are further opportunities for personal development and learning opportunities among Thai and international staff, such as conducting collaborative research projects and coauthoring textbooks or other publications. Based on the policy on staff development at the author's university, there is another way to develop human resources by providing staff with the opportunity to further their studies at higher levels. University administrators may consider providing overseas scholarships for their existing staff to gain higher knowledge and experience in an international environment. This may include scholarships for master's or Ph.D. studies. Alternatively, universities may provide training courses or short (certificate or diploma) programs overseas. Faculty exchange with foreign affiliated universities is also one of the most effective methods for faculty internationalization (Black, 2004). This type of academic activity is becoming increasingly popular as it exposes faculty members to a broader understanding of society, culture, and business in another country (Sharma & Roy, 1996). Thai universities should create academic networks with overseas universities to enhance faculty exchange for the benefits of teaching and research development.

One concern that needs to be addressed here is the issue of professional or industry experience of teaching staff. Several Thai academics argue that many faculty members lack professional or industry experience (Chaisawat, 2005; Sangpikul, 2007; Tejavanija, 2006). As a result, students may lack the opportunities to acquire necessary knowledge from experienced faculty. In order to equip students with necessary industry knowledge for their future careers, university administrators should focus on hiring full-time staff and part-time lecturers with some professional/industry experience. With the shortage of professional experienced staff, some academics suggest that Thai universities should establish faculty networks among university members in order to exchange experienced faculty members (e.g., Chaisawat, 2005). Experienced staff can share their experiences with students (e.g., overseas study, international work experience). Alternatively, academics suggest that universities should develop close cooperative relationships with the industry (Baum, 1998; Horng & Lee, 2005). Developing a relationship with the industry (e.g., hotels, airlines, tour operators) would help teaching staff to acquire the desired practical experience by having practical training in related fields. In the meantime, the industry can also send their staff to receive in-service education in schools through such collaborative relationships, enhancing bilateral collaboration between the industry and academia (Baum, 1998; Horng & Lee, 2005).

Staff professional development

In addition to staff recruitment and human resource development, another way to internationalize faculty is staff professional development. This approach focuses on the academic development of faculty members. The idea is to encourage faculty members to experience and participate in international academic activities (e.g., conducting joint research projects with international researchers or coauthoring journal articles). A review of literature from Western perspectives suggests several practices that may be useful for Thai educators (Black, 2004; Haigh, 2002; Hale & Tijmstra, 1990). These may include presenting research papers at international conferences, applying for overseas research scholarships, publishing journal articles with international colleagues, undertaking joint research with foreign researchers, and composing books or book chapters with international colleagues. The academic activities would provide Thai scholars with opportunities to learn, share, and exchange knowledge and experience with international scholars. These activities will help enhance academic development and capability of Thai scholars. More important, what they learn and experience from such activities will finally contribute to students' learning. To motivate Thai scholars and have them involved in academic activities at the international level, university administrators should establish clear policies and objectives for supporting these activities and properly communicate them with their staff. In Western universities, journal publication is regarded as one of the major indicators for job promotion. In this regard, active promotion based on those academic activities may enhance professional development of Thai scholars. University administrators may provide some incentives in the form of either additional compensation or recognition of their efforts.

Students

Students are another key element for internationalization. The literature suggests several approaches for student internationalization (Black, 2004; Haigh, 2002; Hale & Tijmstra, 1990). This article has summarized and identified two major approaches for internationalizing the student element: (a) a student-oriented approach and (b) an activity-oriented approach. Each approach has useful applications to Thai universities.

Student-oriented approach

A student-oriented approach addresses how students contribute to internationalization. Academics argue that the presence of international students, including full-time and exchange students, is essential to the establishment of the “internationalness” of a program of study (Black, 2004; Shetty & Rudell, 2002). A university focusing on a student-centered approach may encourage its faculty to draw on the experience of international students in class since their experiences may be key issues for class discussions and learning a particular lesson or content (Black, 2004; Shetty & Rudell, 2002). International students gain education and cultural experience from a home university. At the same time, home students are able to experience an international learning environment because of the presence and contribution of international students (Black, 2004). In Western countries, international students not only help significantly to fund home universities, but they also create a culturally diverse environment and contribute to the exchange of knowledge and understanding that takes place in the classroom (Black, 2004). In the same way, international students could contribute to the learning of Thai students. In classrooms, Thai instructors should encourage international students to share their opinions and experiences with their classmates and engage them to work with Thai students as part of a multinational and multicultural team to solve problems (learning) together. To enhance the contribution of international students to the learning of Thai students, teaching staff may use a range of activities (e.g., workshops, seminars, group projects) in which international and Thai students can learn and work together in small groups. Working together as members of multicultural groups is regarded as an effective way to develop multicultural competence (Ledwith & Seymour, 2001). Given the importance of an international student body to the learning experiences of host students, Thai universities should set targets for the number of international students they plan to have each year. One way to increase the number of international students, and at the same time build the image of Thai universities in the overseas market, is to provide scholarships for overseas students. Student exchange programs with affiliated overseas universities can be another way to increase the number of international students on campus.

Activity-oriented approach

An activity-oriented approach aims to address how universities should arrange academic activities to expose students to different cultures or international environments. The literature suggests several ways to do this including study abroad programs, overseas internships, overseas study tours, and other international activities such as international youth camps. Study abroad programs have long been popular in many Western universities (i.e., Europe and North America). These are another valuable means of preparing future managers as they allow students to experience and be exposed to other cultures directly (Tashakori & Dotson, 1989, as cited in Sharma & Roy, 1996). Many U.S. universities have been participating in this mode of internationalization since it is a direct way of learning about foreign cultures, languages, and business worlds (Sharma & Roy, 1996). Academics have argued that study abroad programs help develop students in several ways such as personal growth (increased self-confidence, maturity, flexibility), academic commitment (more interest in education, learning foreign languages), intercultural development (deeper understanding of cultural differences), and career development (acquiring more skills, career direction (Dwyer & Peters, 2004; Michigan State University, 2007). In relation to Thai hospitality and tourism programs, experience from study abroad programs will prepare students to work effectively in the multinational community in the future (e.g., international hotels, airlines) and gain a deeper understanding of cultural diversity and differences. These experiences should benefit them for their personal development and future careers in the international environment.

Like study abroad programs, overseas internships are a way to expose students to the international business environment. Internships provide them with opportunities to gain in-depth knowledge of another culture, learn new things from the field, and prepare for international careers in the hospitality and tourism industry (Black, 2004; Sangpikul, 2007). The provision of opportunities for overseas internships is a very effective way of broadening and deepening students' understanding of the nature and significance of international business (Shetty & Rudell, 2002). Many scholars believe that combining classroom study and work experience (internship) in an international environment would greatly enrich students' learning experiences (Mok, 2007). This suggests that Thai students should be given a choice of overseas internships to broaden their knowledge and perspectives of other hospitality and tourism contexts. In addition to study abroad programs and internships, overseas study tours, when appropriate, may be another way to expose students to the global business environment. Students will have an opportunity to combine their study and firsthand experience of international hospitality and tourism business in different countries. Other benefits of overseas study tours may include exposing students to the hospitality and tourism operations in an international setting, enhancing students' knowledge and understanding of the industry, and visiting business venues for real experience (Sangpikul, 2007; Shetty & Rudell, 2002). By experiencing the real operations of the hospitality and tourism industry, students will be able to compare business operations between local and other contexts/cultures. In Thailand, most typical overseas study tours are offered in graduate programs (e.g., MBA). Thus, the appropriateness of overseas study tours for undergraduate and graduate students in hospitality and tourism programs may depend on each institution's objectives, program structure, and resources.

Curriculum Development

The purpose of internationalizing the curriculum is to create graduates who are capable of engaging in a culture of communication and work that is becoming increasingly global (Peterson, Ginsburg, Garcia, & Lemke, 2000, as cited in Haigh, 2002). Curriculum internationalization involves the process of designing a curriculum that meets the needs of an international student body and prepare students to work effectively in the international and multicultural context (Callan, 2000; Haigh, 2002). Academic scholars such as Haigh (2002) point out that curriculum internationalization aims to prepare students to be able to, for example,

	think globally and inclusively to consider issues from a variety of perspectives and world views,
	understand the basic tenets of multicultural worldviews,
	be aware of their own cultural traditions and perspectives in relation to other cultures and their perspectives, and
	appreciate the relation between his or her field of study locally and elsewhere.

The above reasons for internationalizing the curriculum apply to global businesses like the hospitality and tourism industry. Graduates work in multicultural organizations (international hotel chains, airlines, tour companies) and are in contact with customers from various nationalities and cultures. They need knowledge and skills that enhance their ability to adapt to an unfamiliar culture and to operate in a socially and culturally diverse environment (Black, 2004; Sangpikul, 2007). Developing a curriculum responding to industry needs and preparing graduates for the global workplace presents a challenging task for Thai educators. Internationalizing the curriculum is one of the educational development approaches designed to prepare graduates to work effectively in a highly diverse environment like the hospitality and tourism industry (Black, 2004; Sangpikul, 2007; Wisansing, 2005). However, this may require a shift in the content and style/method of teaching and learning, suggesting that Thai educators need to prepare for these changes. In reviewing the relevant literature on curriculum internationalization (Kwok & Arpan, 1994; Shetty & Rudell, 2002), this article identifies four possible levels for Thai universities to use in internationalizing hospitality and tourism programs. Each level has different degrees of curriculum internationalization beginning from infusing international dimensions into the course contents (at the minimal level) to establishing joint degree programs with foreign universities. The four levels of curriculum internationalization are discussed in relation to the hospitality and tourism program as follows.

Infusing international dimensions into the existing courses (level 1)

The first level of internationalizing the curriculum is infusing international and/or intercultural dimensions into existing courses (both undergraduate and graduate courses). This may be the basic or beginning process of curriculum internationalization. Any university aiming to develop and internationalize its hospitality and tourism program may use this basic approach.

Adding international context to courses

Many hospitality and tourism courses such as marketing, tourist behavior, hotel management, tourism resources management, ecotourism, and sustainable tourism management can be enhanced by adding international and/or intercultural context to the courses. This can be done by giving additional lectures, case studies, readings, and assignments that involve international contexts. The provision of lectures and examples between Thailand and other countries (e.g., comparing Thai and Western hospitality management) or additional materials relating to multicultural contexts (e.g., international tourists' behaviors, cross-cultural studies) may be another way to add international contexts to courses of study.

Assigning research projects involving international or multicultural contexts

Another way to infuse an international and/or intercultural dimension into courses is to assign research projects (e.g., undergraduate study) or theses (graduate study) involving an international or multicultural dimension. As noted, the hospitality and tourism industry is involved with tourists and business people from various cultural backgrounds. The industry, by nature, is a highly international and intercultural-oriented business. Graduates need to have a solid background for understanding cultural differences and should be able to work effectively in a diverse environment. Typically, Thai students learn and conduct research (or theses) based on a single culture (mostly in the Thai context); little attention has been paid to understanding other cultures. To have students learn in a wider scope, gain more knowledge, and have a better understanding of other cultures, academic supervisors may assign tasks that involve an international or multicultural scope. This may include research projects or theses relating to cross-cultural studies or comparative studies in hospitality and tourism. Conducting research based on international/multicultural contexts could be another way to enhance students' learning and understanding of cultural differences and the diversity of the hospitality and tourism industry.

Adding international/multicultural courses to the curriculum (level 2)

This second level of internationalizing the curriculum is to add international courses to the curriculum. These courses could be new, revised, or elective courses. Several approaches can be implemented.

Offering courses/subjects involving more than one country

To internationalize the curriculum, it is generally acknowledged that learning from many cultures and societies provides a strength that monocultural study does not (Black, 2004). This can be reinforced by providing new courses whose contents consider more than one country (e.g., a regional study or a comparative study in tourism). Thai educators should develop courses that provide students the opportunities to study and learn about more than one country (in addition to their own culture). The courses may be designed based on the Thai context and cover other countries with the purpose of having students learn and understand a wider scope. Examples of courses covering more than one country may include a cross-cultural study in tourist behavior, a comparative study of Asian tourism policies, tourism destination development in the Asia Pacific, or sustainable tourism development in Southeast Asia. These new courses will broaden students' knowledge and help them gain a better understanding of tourism industry/development in other countries.

Adding international courses to the curriculum

Similar to the above approach, another common way to internationalize the curriculum is to add international courses to the curriculum. Many business schools in Europe and North America offer international business courses in their programs (Shetty & Rudell, 2002). For the hospitality and tourism program, there are several courses that involve international contexts and can be added to the curriculum, including international hotel management, international hospitality and tourism business, international conference and event management, and global tourism management. These courses would enhance students' knowledge and understanding of international contexts.

Adding language courses to the curriculum

Adding language courses to the curriculum can be another way to learn and gain a deeper understanding of another culture as well as promoting mutual understanding between two cultures (Black, 2004; Sangpikul, 2007). Moreover, additional language courses provide a great opportunity for local students to be exposed to another culture, as many universities require native speakers to be the instructors (e.g., Thailand). Students could learn, share, and exchange their experiences with foreign teachers. The language courses here exclude English since it is a required course for all Thai students (high school and university levels). As the nature of the hospitality and tourism industry involves cross-cultural interaction, it is strongly suggested that, in addition to English courses, second foreign language courses should be included in the curriculum. The aim of studying other languages is to prepare graduates to work professionally in a multicultural environment and in global business. They need foreign languages to communicate with people of various nationalities. The offer of language courses should be based on major international tourist markets to Thailand such as China, Japan, Korea, France, Germany, and Spain. Another benefit for learning language courses is the opportunity for students to participate in international exchange programs with affiliated foreign universities or international organizations in Europe, North America, and the Asia Pacific (Sangpikul, 2007).

Offering a degree in international hospitality and tourism management (level 3)

The third level of internationalizing the curriculum is to offer a degree in international hospitality and tourism management. This approach may require an investment of a large amount of resources. Having sufficient resources, Thai educational providers may consider this option if they are ready to offer such a program at the undergraduate and/or graduate level. As implied by the name of the degree, the ingredients of the program (e.g., faculty, courses, teaching methods) should reflect and focus on international and global contexts. Previous discussions of curriculum internationalization from levels 1 and 2 can be a useful guideline for developing the program. Jayawardena (2001) offered criticism that many well-established educational institutions wrongly use the term “international” to describe and market their hospitality and tourism programs. Such programs are rather “local” in design and delivered by faculty who have not had overseas experience (Jayawardena, 2001, p. 310). Thus, offering a degree in international hospitality and tourism management is a challenge to Thai universities to maintain the quality and standard of the program.

Developing joint programs with foreign universities (level 4)

In addition to developing a degree in international hospitality and tourism management, Thai universities may work with foreign universities to develop a joint program (level 4). The development of collaborative programs at this level can take several forms such as a joint program (receiving one degree from one university) or a joint degree program (receiving degrees from two universities). In particular, the joint degree programs, from a Western point of view, can be viewed as an export venture, while from the Thai perspective such programs can be recognized as importing expertise (Wisansing, 2005). Program structure and delivery of joint programs can be varied depending on the policy or agreement between partner universities. Working with foreign universities would allow Thai educators to see a wider world of international context by creating relationships with international scholars. This is an opportunity for Thai scholars to learn best practices from a partner university, and at the same time they can exchange knowledge and experience and improve the quality of their own programs. In addition, developing a joint program with a foreign university can be a way to compete in the global market for host universities (Chan, 2004). However, although joint programs contribute to the development of program quality, competitiveness, and academic development of faculty and students, they also involve a huge investment of time, money, and resources. Thus, decisions to internationalize the program by developing joint programs with foreign universities may depend on a university's goals, objectives, commitment, and availability of resources.

Some issues need to be addressed regarding the challenges of developing hospitality and tourism curricula in Thailand. In addition to internationalizing curricula, Thai educators should pay attention to the quality of the program in preparing graduates for professional career development. The literature indicates that, despite a recent increase in the numbers of hospitality and tourism graduates, there is a shortfall in the supply of highly qualified candidates (Chaisawat, 2005; Wisansing, 2005). Several Thai academics have expressed concern regarding the current curriculum—whether it is properly designed to respond to the needs of the industry (Chaisawat, 2005; Sangpikul, 2007; Tejavanija, 2006; Wisansing, 2005). They have urged that the curriculum be designed to meet the changing needs and expectations of the industry and to prepare graduates for the competitive global market. The hospitality and tourism industry is a professional service-oriented industry that requires employees with professional skills and practical experience who can effectively work in a diverse cultural environment. Given the influence of globalization and demands from the industry, Thai educators need not only to internationalize the curriculum but also to develop it to be a more professional-based curriculum. Developing a curriculum, particularly the hospitality and tourism program, can be a highly complicated task. One possible suggestion is to have concerned parties involved in the hospitality and tourism higher education sector (i.e., universities, government agencies, and industry) work together (e.g., organizing a seminar or workshop) to design the curriculum that can serve the needs and trends of the industry. The curriculum should be aimed to provide students with required knowledge, competencies, and professional skills needed to be successful in the career path and international marketplace. In other words, the curriculum of hospitality and tourism programs should be developed in the same way a business is managed in the industry (Horng & Lee, 2005).

International Alliances

This section discusses how international alliances contribute to the internationalization of higher education. Deem (2001, as cited in Black, 2004) expressed that one aspect of internationalization is sharing ideas, knowledge, and ways of doing things in similar manners across different countries. Similarly, Mok (2007) pointed out that higher education institutions should develop international collaborations with overseas universities not only in terms of teaching and research but also launching joint programs. This suggests that international networks and linkages seem to be one of the most important elements for the internationalization of higher education. In this article, international alliances are regarded as the core element of the internationalization process. As seen in Table 1, it is evident that international alliances play important roles in the internationalization of faculty (i.e., faculty exchange), students (i.e., student exchange, study abroad, internships), and curriculum development (i.e., joint degree programs). These activities involve overseas linkages. Thus, it can be argued that international alliances are a core element of the internationalization of higher education since they are a major mechanism pushing other elements to international cooperation.

In Western countries, most universities establish international alliances for collaborative benefits such as faculty development (teaching, research), student-related activities (exchange programs, study tours, internships), and curriculum development (new courses, joint programs) including consultancy, technology, and training (Black, 2004; Chan, 2004). Given the contributions of international cooperation, higher educational institutions' relationships with international partners are regarded as critical to the development of sustainable competitive advantages (Mazzarol & Soutar, 1999, as cited in Black, 2004). Shetty and Rudell (2002) added that the establishment of partnerships with international alliances is another powerful tool to increase the global orientation of international education. International alliances and cooperation are not limited to educational institutions but also include associations, organizations, and companies at both regional and international levels. To enhance a greater collaboration with international alliances, the Thai government has an important role in facilitating rules, regulations, and policies for academic cooperation between Thai and foreign organizations (universities, associations, institutions). It should be a key player and/or an active supporter in initiating international collaborative projects/programs within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and international community. Although international cooperation is highly encouraged, quality assurance and recognition of foreign partners should not be overlooked. Several scholars have criticized many international programs/courses for low standards and lack of quality control (e.g., Jayawardena, 2001; Knight, 1999). To maintain the quality and standard of international education in Thailand, the government should establish appropriate regulatory systems to monitor program quality and to accredit the programs or curricula jointly developed between Thai and foreign universities.

To internationalize hospitality and tourism higher education, it is vital for Thai universities to actively establish relationships with international alliances to gain those benefits. An overview of current hospitality and tourism higher education in Thailand indicates that Thai universities need to develop international networks in several areas such as faculty exchange, research cooperation, student exchange programs, study abroad programs, overseas internships, and curriculum development (Sangpikul, 2007). Working with well-established international institutions will help enhance the quality and standards of Thailand's hospitality and tourism higher education as well as enhancing the competencies and competitiveness of Thai universities to be leaders in the region.

CONCLUSION

This article has investigated the concept of internationalization from a Western perspective and examined its potential for Thai higher education by using the hospitality and tourism program as an example. In reviewing relevant literature, this article identified four key elements contributing to the internationalization of higher education: (a) faculty, (b) students, (c) curriculum development, and (d) international alliances. In terms of academic contribution, the identification of the four key elements and their aspects proposed in this article add to the existing literature and serve as a knowledge foundation for further studies or investigation of the subject of internationalization of hospitality and tourism higher education, particularly in the Thai context. Most literature on the internationalization of higher education is dominated by the Western perspective, and little is known about the Asian context. This article, a reflection from the Thailand perspective, discusses how Thai higher educational institutions should adopt the internationalization process in their hospitality and tourism programs. Although most of the discussion is based on the hospitality and tourism field, the main concept of the article can be applied and implemented in other disciplines. This article has examined various approaches to internationalization, and the decisions to move toward internationalization may depend on the availability of resources, administrative commitment and objectives, and the level of internationalization the institution wants to achieve. For Thai universities, benchmarking can be a useful tool to indicate the level of internationalization implementation compared to other countries.

It is hoped that the internationalization of hospitality and tourism programs in higher education will be one of the most effective educational developments to respond to the challenges Thai universities are currently facing (i.e., impact of globalization, graduate capabilities, industry needs/expectations). Internationalization is a key challenge for Thai universities and requires a new mindset. It is a major and long-term undertaking and demands commitment and competence, as well as cooperation from various sectors (i.e., educational institutions, government, and the industry) to work closely to share, develop, and decide on the future direction of Thai education. In spite of some risks associated with internationalization, higher education institutions should carefully adopt it in the way that fits the local educational system. Ultimately, internationalization should be recognized as a powerful tool to develop global human resources and enhance intercultural understanding of human society. Finally, it is hoped that this article will provide some useful information for tourism educators, not only in Thailand but also in countries facing similar situations, to prepare for the internationalization of hospitality and tourism higher education.