Latinx Teachers Engaging Students, Parents, and Families

ABSTRACT

Classroom teachers and certified English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers struggle staying current with pedagogical approaches and strategies to work with diverse student populations. In order to support Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD) students’ success in the classroom, teachers must implement effective teaching strategies. Teaching without knowing the students’ background knowledge is problematic for all students. To this end, this study explored (a) how teachers who graduated from a federally funded bilingual and bicultural education program engage in justice agendas for their CLD students, (b) the things these in-service teachers attribute as barriers and support systems in their social justice work, and (c) the educational strategies the in-service Latinx teachers value in their role as advocates in their social justice work. Qualitative and Critical Qualitative Research (CQR) was our overarching framework to examine participants’ experiences regarding social justice. Latino/a Critical Race Theory/LatCrit was our theoretical framework with trenzas y mestizaje (braids and mixture) as the methodological framework. Data collection was based on testimonios collected through individual pláticas and group pláticas (formal and/or informal conversations) elicited by the use of tesoros (treasures). Data was analyzed and interpreted through Trenzas y Mestizaje and LatCrit. Specifically, data analysis was achieved through braiding the participants’ experiences and/or testimonios. The following prominent themes emerged: (a) Effective classroom strategies, (b) Parent and family involvement, (c) Relationships, (d) Barriers as pre-service and in-service teachers: Resilience. The findings of this study indicate that all participants described their effectiveness as teachers through the implementation of specific strategies, intrinsic motivation for teaching Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students (CLDs), and the sense of commitment to being role models to their students. Additionally, the findings indicate how the participants were able to overcome barriers through resilience, support from colleagues, administrators, and family members. These participants/Latinx teachers have been teaching advocating, informing, and engaging their students, parent, and families for the past seventeen years, by providing them with resources and strategies to navigate the U.S. education system.

KEYWORDS:

• Latinx teachers
• students
• families

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Introduction

The purpose of this study was to explore how teachers who graduated from a federally funded bilingual and bicultural education program navigate educational institutions while becoming teacher advocates engaged in justice agendas concerning their Culturally and Linguistically Diverse students (CLDs) in a Midwestern state.

This research is needed, because of the need to study a group or population of marginalized English Language Learners (ELLs). It is imperative that more research is conducted on effective strategies and support systems provided to ELLs. We need to take into consideration that although many ELLs are born in the United States, they still seem to struggle acquiring and learning English. According to Sousa (2011), about 76% of the elementary-age ELLs and 56% of middle and high school ELLs were born in the United States. Furthermore, many students of color are not performing as well as they could in school settings where teaching and learning are approached solely from the “perspective of Eurocentric values, assumptions, beliefs and methodologies” (Gay, 2014, p. 354). According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) (2019) evidence demonstrates that minority teachers of similar backgrounds as their students may have higher expectations of their students than nonminority teachers. Evidence also shows that having a teacher of the same race/ethnicity can have positive impacts on students’ attitudes, motivation, and performance (NCES, 2019). This still remains a main concern since the percentage of white school teachers at K-12 level still remain over 80% and the percentage of Latino/Hispanic teachers has only increased from 6 to 9% in the past twelve years (NCES, 2019).

Using a Critical Qualitative Research (CQR) approach (Denzin, 2017), in individual and group pláticas with five K-12 teachers from different schools and different school districts in the State of Kansas, data was collected to determine the type of support these teachers provided to their CLD students and families. Through the lens of CQR, data was collected through testimonios, pláticas, and tesoros. The data was analyzed using the trenzas methodological framework (Calderon et al., 2012).

To have a better understanding of the participants, it is important to understand their ethnic background and their participation in the Bilingual/Bicultural Education Students Interacting to Obtain Success (BESITOS) program. Over two-thirds of these students were bilingual, Latinx students pursuing an elementary and/or secondary teaching degree. All five participants, former BESITOS students, are currently Latinx teachers working in K-12 schools and have taught more than three years. All five participants were English Language Learners and first-generation college students. Additionally, two participants are male teachers and three are female teachers.

The participants whom we interviewed and/or had the pláticas with continue working on their education. Three of the five participants have a Master’s degree, one of them is nine credit hours from obtaining her Master’s degree, and one started her Master’s in the Spring of 2020. All five participants continue working in the classroom with CLD students and continue providing support to their students and their students’ families.

Literature review

Effective classroom strategies

Teachers with high human capital invest themselves when planning and implementing transformational strategies (Holdsworth & Maynes, 2017). According to Ferlazzo and Sypnieski (2012), there are several concepts that are foundational components of instruction for CLDs and being familiar with these concepts is important for all teachers, especially the teachers working directly with this student population. The concepts proposed by Ferlazzo and Sypnieski (2012) are: (1) L1, which refers to the students’ first language, (2) L2, which refers to the students’ second language, (3) Basic Interpersonal communication Skills (BICS), which are the second language skills acquired and used in social situations, (4) Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), which are the cognitive and academic language skills, (5) Acquisition vs Learning, (6) Stages of second language acquisition and (7) Proficiency levels. Haynes and Zacarian (2010) support the importance of and learning the same concepts stated by Ferlazzo and Sypnieski. After becoming familiar with the concepts proposed by Ferlazzo and Sypnieski, teachers of CLD students are then able to search and implement effective strategies to meet their CLD students’ needs. Haynes and Zacarian (2010) indicate that after the teachers have the knowledge of the foundational concepts, they can concentrate on developing specific strategies, i.e., develop a safe classroom environment to enhance CLD students’ learning, engaging lesson plans, implement different grouping configurations, implement effective in context vocabulary strategies, design writing appropriate writing strategies depending on the students’ English language level.

For effective reading strategies, Krashen (1999) recommends taking the “whole language into consideration” (p. 26). Krashen (1999) defines “whole language as providing comprehensible texts” to students (p. 27). In other words, Krashen (1999) recommends taking the comprehension hypothesis into consideration when developing literacy, which means providing students with interesting text they can relate to, understand, and make connections to the text. Facella et al. (2005) conducted a study in two different school districts in Massachusetts to compile a list of effective strategies implemented with their CLD students. In this study, Facella et al. (2005) interviewed ten prekindergarten through second grade teachers from each school district. These school districts were selected for having a high population of CLD students. Some recommendations and effective strategies these teachers identified were (a) making constant modifications to their lesson plans, (b) activating students’ background knowledge, (c) implementing appropriate developmental strategies for the students’ level of second language acquisition, (d) have knowledge of how students acquire language, and (e) take into consideration how much English is spoken in the home. The specific strategies that seem to be effective and work well with CLD students in Facella et al. (2005) study were “(1) gestures and visual cues, (2) repetition and opportunities for practicing skills, (3) use of objects, real props, and hands-on materials and (4) multisensory approaches” (p. 211).

Parent and family involvement

Latinx teachers find themselves in a double bind when they are expected to be committed to the Latinx community while employed and serving a “culturally subtractive education system” (Colomer, 2019, p. 273). Additionally, according to Colomer (2019), “Latinx teachers are caught between traditional Latinx beliefs, such as familismo and traditional US values of individualism” (p. 273). According to López et al. (2019),“familismo” can be considered a form of social capital (p. 88). Familismo is the notion of collectivism, in other words, working together to the benefit and well-being of the community over the individual (López et al., 2019).

Jonak (2014), states that many educators or school personnel are not prepared to satisfactorily work with students’ families. Gándara et al. (2005), indicates teachers do not blame parents or families for the lack of student achievement, rather they need to understand the lack of assistance from these families can be related to parents’ work, language, and cultural barriers. Additionally, Jonak (2014), states that involvement of parents from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds may be impeded by factors such as being unaware of schools’ expectations, language barriers, difficulties finding childcare, and transportation to the schools. According to Jonak (2014), school staff should be compensated for after-hours parent meetings. Furthermore, Jonak (2014) states that parents should be provided with options that match their interests and abilities for involvement in ways they can support the education of their children. Schools should translate information for families who do not communicate or understand English (Jonak, 2014).

Research has and continues to demonstrate the importance of parent, family, and community involvement, for all students. Bryan and Holcomb McCoy (2010) describe school, family, and community partnerships as:

Collaborative relationships in which school personnel, students, families, community members, and other stakeholders work jointly and mutually to develop and implement school-and community-based prevention and intervention programs and activities to improve children’s chances of academic, personal/social, career and college success.

(p. 1)

Although, all students benefit from the collaboration of all participants and schools, there are different factors that affect the parent, family, and community engagement of CLD students. One of the factors negatively impacting these families is their immigration status. In the 1997 Intercultural Development Research Association (IDRA) Newsletter, a school opening alert was sent to all parents regarding the Plyler vs. Doe case. This case states, “undocumented children and young adults have the same right to attend public primary and secondary schools as do U.S. citizens and permanent residents” (Intercultural Development Research Association, 1997, p. 5). Parents and families seem to be hesitant to directly participate in school-related activities if any family members are undocumented.

Larrotta and K (2011) recommend schools get to know the parents and families in order for parent involvement to be meaningful and engaging. Similar to the education philosophy of getting to know your students, parent involvement practices should also include and engage parents by getting to know their needs, resources, and talents (Larrotta & K, 2011)., Regularly, most forms of parent involvement cater to middle-class, two-parent families and usually require parents to be fluent in English. Larrotta and K (2011) further recommend for parent involvement to be designed with diverse families in mind, in other words taking into consideration low-income families, single-parent families, and families for whom English is not their native language.

Olvera and Olvera (2012), state students are more likely to succeed and make academic gains when educators and families work well together. Furthermore, Olvera and Olvera mention the importance of getting to know the parents and families with whom teachers are working. Olvera and Olvera (2012) recommend using the following framework and adapt the six types of collaborative expectations and/or outcomes to work with Latino culture and other cultures. The six collaborative expectations or outcomes recommended are: (1) parenting, (2), communication, (3) volunteering, (4) learning at home, (5) decision-making and (6) collaborating with the community (Olvera & Olvera, 2012). These expectations can serve as a framework and guide for school professionals to get to know the parents, families, and communities they serve. For example, in the Latino community, respect and education are closely associated. Suárez Orozco et al. (2010), mention that in the Latino culture, respect for teachers is considered paramount and respect is best demonstrated by entrusting the teachers with all matters regarding education. Although the trust factor may often seem to educators that parents are not very involved in their children’s education (Suárez Orozco et al., 2010).

Relationships

Building good rapport with students is best explained by Split et al. (2012), who claim supportive relationships with teachers tend to promote students’ engagement in learning activities and succeed in academic achievement. Additionally, Irizarry and Raible (2011), indicate that caring relationships and positive experiences with teachers, counselors, administrators, and other school officials working with Latino and CLDs can help them succeed academically. Conversely, Split et al. (2012) express how poor relationships with teachers elicit feelings and distress, which may limit students’ ability to dedicate energy to academic learning activities. Furthermore, Bernstein-Yamashiro and Noam (2013) stated a lack of connection to caring adults at school is recognized as a reason for student alienation, failure, and unhappiness from school and dropout. Therefore, positive and/or poor relationships with students may impact them in different ways.

Barriers as pre-service and in-service teachers: resilience

Some of the barriers and/or challenges faced by Latinx immigrant students include language acquisition, isolation, melancholy, poverty, and feelings of not belonging (McWhirter et al., 2013). Social justice is frequently understood as the concept of fairness and equality for all people regarding their basic human rights (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2012). According to Nieto and Bode (2008), social justice is a term associated with an equitable education, which means providing each student opportunities to achieve their potential by giving them access to the resources, “services and social and cultural capital of a society” and also valuing and taking into consideration the culture and ethnicity of each student (p. 11). In this study, social justice was mostly referred to the rights of CLD students to receive a fair, effective, and inclusive education. According to Nieto (1996), most teachers want to provide the best education for their students but unfortunately teachers are not the ones in charge or even part of the development of policies and practices being implemented in their schools. Additionally, Olvera and Olvera (2012) mention that students of color, especially, Latino students come from a low socioeconomic status and have difficulties navigating the U.S education system. A study done by McWhirter et al. (2013), identified barriers for Latina/o immigrant students. In this study, some of the barriers identified by McWhirter et al. (2013) were these students did not understand the U.S education system, lack of parental involvement, and lack of school support for these Latina/o parents and families. Furthermore, Garza (2019), states it is challenging for students to successfully navigate the transition from secondary to post-secondary education, especially for students who do not have friends or family to guide them through this process. Garza (2019) further states that in 2015–2016, close to half “(44%) of Latinx college students” were the first in their families to attend college (p. 10).

The Latinx high school dropout population is close to or more than 40% and for Latinx undocumented students the number is even higher. According to McWhirter et al. (2013), for every 100 Latina/o elementary school students only about 60 graduate from high school, 13 obtain a bachelor’s degree, and only 0.3% attain a doctoral degree. For immigrant Latinas/os educational attainment is even lower and undocumented Latinx students are the least likely to attend college and/or graduate from high school.

Other barriers and risk factors that may affect CLD students’ academic performance, especially CLDs that have immigrated to the United States can be (a) separation from parents, (b) separation from family caretakers, and (c) reunification with parents (Suárez Orozco et al., 2010). Separation from parents may take place when parents leave their home country leaving some or all children behind with siblings while they get establish in the United States. Although reunification with parents can be exciting, leaving caretakers, siblings, and friends behind can also be stressful and create emotional problems, which may affect these students’ academic performance (Suárez Orozco et al., 2010).

Methods

The following three research questions guided our study:

1. In what ways do the participants engage in justice agendas for their students?

2. What do the participants attribute as barriers and support system(s) in their justice work?

3. What significant educational strategies do the participants value in their role as advocates in their justice work?

The data collection methods included two different types of pláticas. Two individual pláticas with a participant teaching at the K-5 level, another participant working at the 6–8 level, and the third participant teaching at the 9–12 level. Two additional participants were invited for the group pláticas. The duration of data collection was 12 weeks. We refer to pláticas as an interview/conversation that can be from semi-structured to unstructured. A significant difference is that the role of the interviewer/researcher and the interviewee/participant can be switched during the conversation in order to provide an environment of confianza y respeto (trust and respect), but with the researcher always guiding the conversation. Bhattacharya (2017) states conversations and/or interviews can take place in different forms in qualitative research and can be a form of interview that can vary from informal talk to formal semi-structured or structured interviews. Additionally, Fierros and Delgado Bernal (2016) identify la plática as a more suitable form of engaging with the Latino/a population. In other words, pláticas are interviews that incorporate the cultural factor within the interview and modify the structure in order to gain trust. Valle and Mendoza (1978) identify the plática process as a social network paradigm used to build good rapport, which was crucial to developing social network intimacy and unity with the Latino population. We helped our participants feel more comfortable by sharing some of our testimonios through the pláticas using some of our tesoros during the interview.

Tesoros, i.e., special artifacts with sentimental value to the participants, were used to elicit the individual and group pláticas. During the individual pláticas, participants were asked to discuss five of their tesoros. During the group pláticas, each participant was asked to discuss three tesoros. These elicitations/tesoros consisted of pictures, thank you cards, toy rings, and other objects that were meaningful and had sentimental value to the participant. Additionally, semi-structured and guiding questions were created for the pláticas (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Each individual plática took 80–90 minutes and each group plática took 90–100 minutes.

To personalize the individual pláticas, we asked each of the three participants to bring five tesoros. Tesoros are treasures or pieces of evidence provided by someone, in this case students’ or parents’ gifts to the participant were considered tesoros, especially if they have a great meaning behind the gift’s value. The participants’ experiences were triggered by these tesoros, in other words, tesoros created a context for the participants to speak about their experiences while sharing their personal testimonios. Other elicitations/tesoros brought by the participants were, pictures, videos, letters, and objects that were meaningful and had sentimental value to the participant (Bhattacharya, 2017). Other items that can be considered tesoros may be students’ work saved by the participants, or an item or object constructed collaboratively by students and the participants.

These pláticas were informal, but at the same time, valuable data was collected because the participants shared their testimonios and spoke from the heart. They were in a comfortable environment sharing truthful, realistic, and valuable information with us and with each other. Similar to the individual pláticas, during the group pláticas, we continued taking notes of these pláticas until the last participant left.

Data management and analysis

During the data analysis, we conducted ongoing examinations and interpretations of the data in order to reach tentative conclusions and continue to refine our research (Hancock & Algozzine, 2006). This process allowed us to compare the data as soon as we collected it. According to Glesne and Peshkin (1992), “data analysis done simultaneously with data collection enables you to focus and shape the study as it proceeds” (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, p. 127). During the analysis, we looked for emerging themes as well as differences and similarities. Furthermore, in order to make sense of the information collected from the testimonios, we constantly interacted with the information throughout the research process. Since so much data was collected through group and individual pláticas, in order to prevent chaos and not become overwhelmed, we used Hancock and Algozzines’ guidelines to simultaneously summarize and interpret our data. The recommended guidelines are:

1. Ongoing refinement of the study’s fundamental research question in light of data obtained early in the investigation.

2. Constant focus on the research questions being investigated.

3. Collection and interpretation of only those data that are potentially meaningful to the research effort.

4. Develop a method for labeling, storing and gaining access to information acquired during the research effort.

5. Use all available resources that can assist in the collection and interpretation of information. (2006, pp. 56-57)

Quiñones (2016) also uses trenzas/braids as an organizing structure for the multiple layered analysis process. Our testimonios and our participants’ testimonios were interwoven and interconnected into trenzas. Additionally, to manage and analyze the collected data from individual and group pláticas we used Testimonios. We took detailed notes during the individual pláticas and group pláticas. Furthermore, we personally transcribed and coded all testimonios and pláticas. Since participants’ consent was provided, I took pictures of some of their tesoros.

Data management involved both printed and digitally collected raw data. As represented in the data inventory, individual and group pláticas, and field notes were required organization and management. Additionally, for journal entries and field notes, we used laptops, which provided convenient recording space. Furthermore, we used a digital recording device that allowed us to make voice memos while taking notes for further expansion of discussions and ideas.

We used NVivo to assist in analyzing, managing, and organizing our data. According to Creswell, “NVivo can display graphically the codes and categories” (Creswell, 2007, p. 167). Additionally, this coding program can retain the information in the language provided by the participants. All participants are bilingual and we wanted to provide them the opportunity to communicate and share their testimonios without having to translate specific words. Along with narrative analysis and categorical aggregation, Nvivo supported in capturing the true meaning of part of the stories, which could possibly be told in Spanish. Furthermore, data analysis of each testimonio was completed separately and data was processed using trenzas. Notes were taken by the researchers. Participant and researchers’ discussions took place after each plática and during data analysis. After the pláticas were completed with one participant, we continued with the second and third participant.

Trustworthiness

In order to indicate trustworthiness First, we clearly stated the purpose of the study and our invested interest in it. Second, while starting to analyze the data, we took a closer look at subjectivity, beliefs, and assumptions about the topic of our study. Furthermore, during this study, we provided a clearly written research purpose and questions. Third, the research design is meaningful and serves the purpose of the study. Additionally, we used purposeful and criterion sampling strategies that were appropriate for the study, and managed, collected, and analyzed data carefully. Finally, we maintained a log of daily activities and a reflective personal log with detailed field notes. Additionally, in order to demonstrate credibility, we utilized triangulation. Triangulation assumes that if two or more sources of data collected, or researchers coincide on a similar conclusion, then the conclusion is more credible.

Reflection for Credibility and Rigor

Engaging in reflection as a researcher is another method for ensuring credibility and rigor. Reflexivity is “the process of reflecting critically on the self as researcher” (Lincoln & Guba, 2000, p. 183). Additionally, “member reflections allow for sharing and dialoguing with participants about the study’s findings, and providing opportunities for questions critique, feedback affirmation and even collaboration” (Tracy, 2010, p. 844). As a reminder and support, we used a personal log. We took notes and constantly reflected on experiences and assumptions during the research process. We also conducted member checks. Furthermore, rich rigor and sincerity in the data collection and data analysis process, reflective journaling, and peer debriefing added to the rigor and trustworthiness of this research. When applying all the techniques mentioned above, significant rigor and credibility was added to this study.

Context and participants

The methodological framework implemented is Trenzas y Mestisaje. Trenzas means to braid multiple strands together and is a Chicana Feminist Epistemology (CFE). Margaret E. Montoya first conceptualized trenzas as an analytical frame of intersectionality, “a multimethodological approach of pláticas (popular conversations), and the active engagement-voices” of her researcher self and her participants (Gonzalez, 2001, p. 645). Trenzas challenge dominant society’s indifference to non-English speakers and that the culture lived and learned by women requires different languages (Montoya, 1994). Before trenzas y mestizaje and other CFEs appeared in academic literature there was the work of Gloria Anzaldúa (Calderon et al., 2012). Anzaldúa’s theoretical concepts of Nepantla, El Mundo Zurdo, and Coyolxauhqui, were utilized to address issues related to oppression and social justice research (Calderon et al., 2012). Additionally, these theoretical concepts provided a foundation for our study and we utilized them to understand and explain how Nepantleros/as can provide advocacy for the participants’ CLD students, parents, and families. The concepts of El Mundo Zurdo helped us explain the ways teachers and school personnel should view and value different ideas and perspectives in order to provide the appropriate support to parents and families (Anzaldúa & Keating, 2002).

Anzaldúa and Keating (2002) state this visionary place is where difference functions do not exclude but act as an invitation for community-building and major change. In the field of education theoretically, Anzaldúa and Keating’s (2002) Mundo Zurdo could refer to all entities involved in the education system, such as teachers, principals, and parents among others, working in alliance to make a major change in the education of all students, specifically, English Language Learners (ELLs).

Mestizaje, the Spanish word for mixture, also considered a CFE, is a “consciousness of an ethical commitment to egalitarian social relations in the everyday political sphere of culture” (Gonzalez, 2001, p. 646). Trenzas y mestizaje facilitated exploration of the experiences of Latinas/os as former BESITOS students as they continue to navigate the education system as in-service ESL teachers. Trenzas y mestizaje as a CFE is not new; however, it is a methodological framework that is rarely used to understand the experiences of Latinx in-service teachers. According to Delgado Bernal (2002):

There is not just one raced-gendered epistemology by many that each speak to culturally specific ways of positioning between a raced epistemology that omits the influences of gender on knowledge production and a White feminist epistemology that does not account for race.

(p. 107)

This CFE framework of trenzas y mestizaje, through individual pláticas and group pláticas, allowed us to weave and interconnect stories of the support they provide to their CLD students. Calderon et al. (2012) state that feminists of color in education have drawn on alternative systems of learning that hold the potential to disrupt “Western colonial assumptions” (p. 514). Additionally, we argue that CFE frameworks are appropriate to examine the experiences of both male and female Latinx teachers. Both male and female obtain knowledge from home or pedagogies of the home through the process of consejos, cuentos, and pláticas (Delgado Bernal, 2018).

Trenzas y Mestizaje were informed by the theoretical frameworks of Critical Race Theory (CRT) and more specifically, Latino/a Critical Race Theory LatCrit. Critical Race Theory began as a movement in the mid-1970s (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). Additionally, this movement is a “collection of activists and scholars interested in studying and transforming the relationship among race, racism, and power” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001, p. 2). Although, CRT began in the field of law, today in the field of education, scholars and theorists use CRT to understand issues of school discipline, ranking, disagreement over curriculum, and history (Delgado, 2012).

LatCrit is considered a subgroup of CRT because it addresses similar issues, although, Latinx scholars also study immigration theory and policy along with language rights and/or discrimination based on national origin (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). Together, CRT and LatCrit offer an interdisciplinary approach that can help critical scholars and educators understand and improve the education experiences of students of color (Malagón, 2010).

Results

Effective classroom strategies

The findings of this study illustrate that all participants described their effectiveness as teachers through the implementation of specific strategies, intrinsic motivation for teaching Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students (CLDs), and the sense of commitment to being role models to their students. Jesús, indicated using and implementing Biography Driven Instruction strategies. He mentioned the importance of getting to know his students and earning their trust in the process. Jesús enjoyed sharing personal stories with his students in order to build confianza/trust. He had a teacher as a role model who believed in him and encouraged him to attend college, therefore he also felt the need to be a role model to his students and provide them with information and encourage them to attend college. All other participants also stated feeling motivated when they saw the excitement in their students’ faces after learning something new.

All participants related to and emotionally engaged with their students due to similar shared experiences with their students, e.g., overcoming language barriers, coming from low socioeconomic families, being first generation college students, and being immigrants, and/or children of immigrants. Another factor affecting three of the five participants was not feeling welcome and/or valued in the school setting, to the point this issue and/or barrier affected their performance in the classroom. Pablo and Carmen felt isolated the first year of their teaching profession and Jesús felt isolated and hated the first two years of his profession. These feelings forced him to leave his students, who he loved, behind and move to a different school.

Yadira has taught in three different elementary schools. Her first five years of teaching she taught in a school where over 60% of the students were Hispanic/Latinx. Over 30% of the teachers were also Hispanic/Latinx, including both of the administrators. Yadira felt comfortable, loved, and she knew she was making a difference in her students’ lives. This school was a dual language school, English/Spanish. Yadira, then moved to a less diverse school district and her feelings completely changed from feeling welcomed, loved, and valued to feeling alienated and disrespected. She mentioned that all her feelings came back from when she was a non-English speaking child in school. She felt alienated for not being able to speak English, she would eat lunch alone, and she felt invisible to everyone.

Sara is currently an English as a Second Language (ESL) teacher and has worked with Kindergarten − 5^th grade CLD students. Contrasting the other four participants, Sara received support from colleagues and supervisors. Sara feels welcomed, appreciated, and valued in her school. Therefore, Sara’s social capital was powerful since her first year in the classroom. Sara felt included in all decision making regarding her school, CLD students, and programs.

The participants have been teaching between seven and seventeen years; currently they expressed feeling the sense of belonging and the sense of being valued. All five participants feel close to the rest of their colleagues and valued by their administrators. They all expressed the sense of feeling like a family. The participants currently feel the sense of familismo and indicated that feeling part of the family is much more important than any classroom strategy. Furthermore, the participants implement the concept of familismo with their students to create a positive classroom environment, make them feel welcome, valued, and to earn their trust. Participants stated that once they have earned their students’ trust, they are able to implement an equitable education in the classroom by implementing specific strategies to improve students’ abilities in the skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In other words, providing the appropriate resources to those that need them and during the time of need. This process requires getting to know students’ background knowledge and educational needs.

All five participants agreed they are currently receiving some type of support from colleagues and administrators and that they feel they have a lot to contribute as well as provide support to colleagues who are willing to listen and to accept their ideas. Additionally, all participants, continue feeling their ethnicity and cultural background are factors for not being fully supported or seen as contributors to the education system.

Parent and family involvement

To further explore the following question: how do the participants valued their role as advocates in their justice work? The significance of parent and family involvement was examined. All participants agreed on the value of involving parents and families in their children’s education. Although all the participants explained they knew the importance of communicating with parents’ of CLD students, not all colleagues and administrators knew how to reach these parents. All participants offered their support and expertise in working with these families, but often were turned away or not listened to for different reasons. All participants relate to the concept of familismo, and understand that as Latinx students and teachers they are expected to put the needs of family before anything else, even if it requires personal sacrifices. Jesús indicated being the eldest of a single parent family with four brothers. He mentioned wanting to drop out of college to work full time and provide financial support to his mother and younger siblings. Fortunately, his mother convinced him to remain in college, graduate, and set an example for his brothers.

As in-service teachers, all participants felt the need to be role models and provide support to all their Latinx and CLD students. Unfortunately, although all participants were Latinx, one of them mentioned the difficulties of communicating and reaching Latinx parents and families. Pablo indicated not being able to reach and convince all parents on the importance of their involvement in their children’s education. He stated that some parents were probably tired of other teachers only contacting them when their children had done something wrong. Pablo wanted to communicate with parents and discuss the achievements of their children, but parents always expected to hear only negative comments about their children, therefore they were not very receptive to teacher phone calls.

Four participants indicated being aware of best practices and ways to communicate with parents and family involvement. They stated schools needed to take into consideration the factors and barriers of families of CLD students, such as, language barriers, interests, and possibly transportation issues. All participants stated their Latinx parents had expressed their feeling of complete trust to them regarding their children’s education. All participants expressed sharing their ideas with their administrators for creating an effective partnership with parents and families of CLD students. The participants suggested having meetings with parents during different times and days of the week, including weekends. Additionally, they suggested surveying the parents in order to find their interests and needs. One other suggestion by all participants was to translate information in as many different languages as possible, especially into Spanish since this was the first language of most parents of CLDs.

Relationships

Another finding of this study revealed the significance and importance of participants having a positive relationship with all students. All participants reiterated and expressed the type of relationships they had with their students; they knew their students at a deeper level than just academics. They were aware of students’ needs in and out of the classroom. Jesús indicated relating to his students and sharing similar experiences. He mentioned having a teacher and a great role model in his life. This teacher helped him, believed in him, and provided him with information about college. Therefore, positive and/or poor relationships with students may impact them in different ways.

Pablo and Jesús stated the majority of their students were from underrepresented, marginalized, and low socio-economic status. Many of these students were also undocumented immigrant students, therefore they seem to have no aspiration or hope to attend college. These students wanted to learn English well enough to obtain a full-time job, communicate well with people, and earn money. Pablo and Jesús, along with all other participants demonstrated affection and discussed how much they cared for their students. The participants allowed their students to share their stories in the classroom. This seemed to be difficult at first, but once the participants shared their stories, they gained their students’ trust.

Three of the participants, Carmen, Jesús, and Pablo, indicated having conversations with their students regarding college. Jesús expressed the importance of making connections with his students. He indicated sharing his experience before, during, and after college. He currently tells his students the experience he had with one teacher who encouraged him to attend college. This teacher believed in him and saw something in him he did not see himself. Although not many teachers in his high school encourage Latinx students to attend college, Jesús felt the need to connect with his students and convince them to attend college. He provided them with specific information and encouraged them to visit with school counselors. Jesús’ students were doing well in his class and he could see the potential in his students. This finding indicated that teachers are not only in the classroom to teach the content, but also to provide support to students regarding their personal and professional lives.

Similar to Jesús’ teacher, Jesús is now a role model to his students by graduating from college and building confidence in his students. All the participants, especially the three working at the middle school and high school level, stated sharing their college experiences with their students and encouraging their students to attend college. These participants are role models, they build trust, positive relationships, make connections, and share their personal success stories with their students.

Barriers as pre-service and in-service teachers: resilience

In concert with the purpose of this study, barriers of the participants as pre-service and in-service teachers were explored. The findings revealed all the participants experienced similar barriers as pre-service teachers and some similar barriers as in-service teachers. All participants expressed having a culture and language barrier. Yadira shared her memories of the difficulties she had in school most of her life for not knowing English well. She mentioned she studied for many hours in order to do well on quizzes, assignments, and tests. She felt not knowing how to communicate in English well kept her from having many friends growing up. She performed well in sports and this helped her to feel part of a team, which gave her a sense of belonging. On the other hand, Jesús felt he did not belong in his school. He was not involved in extracurricular activities and grew up in a low socioeconomic and single parent home. He shared he grew up in poverty and did not have access to many resources.

Four of the five participants remember having only one teacher in their kindergarten through high school education that spoke the same first language as they did and usually these teachers were the Spanish teachers in their high schools. One of the participants grew up in a rural area and attended a small school. She did not recall having a teacher that spoke the same first language as her. Confianza/trust as stated by the participants creates and leads to openness and sharing of information as they did in Jesús’ classroom. Jesús’ students felt comfortable sharing their personal stories about their home countries with the whole class.

Although now all participants are in-service teachers that have worked in their profession for more than seven years, they were at one time, first generation, English language learners, Latinx pre-service teachers. Being first generation college students at one point was a huge barrier. They did not have someone to guide them through the process of attending college. They had to navigate the U.S education system on their own.

Jesús indicated having conversations with his students about college and encouraging them to attend college. Unfortunately, a majority of his students were undocumented and not residents or citizens of the United States. For immigrant students, being undocumented is one of the major barriers for not continuing with their college education and this barrier also keeps many of them from graduating high school. The Latinx high school dropout population is close to or more than 40% and for Latinx undocumented students the number is even higher. All our participants were immigrants or children of immigrants. Fortunately, by the time they attended college they were legal U.S. residents or U.S. citizens; therefore, this was no longer an issue for them. Unfortunately, being immigrants and undocumented continues to be an immense barrier for many of the participants’ former and current students. All participants continue to share their stories of resilience, to help motivate and encourage their current K-12 students to remain in school, graduate from high school, and attend college. Our participants had personal experience of being immigrants or children of immigrants and were positioned to provide more accurate information to their students about attending college. Since our participants were not undocumented students while in college, the participants lacked knowledge of specific requirements for their students and referred them to school counselors.

Discussion

Effective classroom strategies

The findings of this study are consistent with Holdsworth and Maynes (2017), who state that human capital or individual qualities of teachers usually determine the impact a teacher will make in the students’ lives. Similarly to all participants, Holdsworth and Maynes (2017) indicate that innovative teachers were motivated by the sense of commitment they have to their students. All participants were able to relate and emotionally engage with their students in many different aspects. Similarly to their students, some of the participants went through and overcame similar barriers, such as a language barrier, being first generation college students, and being immigrants, or children of immigrants.

Not feeling welcome and/or valued in the school setting was a factor affecting the performance of three of the participants. Pablo and Carmen felt isolated the first year of their teaching profession and Jesús felt isolated and hated the first two years of his profession. These feelings forced him to leave his students, who he loved, behind and move to a different school. This finding contradicts the social capital concept used by Holdsworth and Maynes (2017), who state that social capital relates to the collective power of the group. Additionally, Holdsworth and Maynes (2017), state that collaboration in the workplace has been identified as one of the key social capital skills, which also contradicts Yadira’s first five years of teaching of feeling alienated and not supported. On the other hand, Sara’s social capital was powerful since her first year in the classroom. Sara felt included in all decision making regarding her school, CLD students, and programs.

Many Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students face obstacles and barriers to be successful academically. Culturally responsive teaching, taking the students’ background knowledge into consideration and teachers’ self-reflection are a few recommendations made by researchers to help provide some support for CLD students. Zhang and Stephens (2013) state that besides having knowledge of second language acquisition, teachers working with CLD students must also learn how to scaffold learning in the mainstream classroom. Scaffolding usually occurs after teachers become familiar with and get to know the students’ academic and linguistic background knowledge. Lewis-Moreno (2007) suggests that teachers and school districts should take an “ecological approach” instead of the “medical method”, in other words, teachers should view CLD students’ cultures and languages from the asset perspective instead of a deficit perspective (p, 773). Lewis-Moreno (2007) add that mainstream classroom teachers who implement the ecological approach usually take the initiative to learn and meet the needs of CLD students in their classrooms and not solely depend on the English as a Second Language teacher. An effective reading strategy mentioned by Lewis-Moreno (2007), is “a reading partner program” (p. 773). This reading and listening strategy requires pairing middle and/or high school CLD students with CLD elementary students. According to Lewis-Moreno (2007), using level appropriate children’s literature benefits older students by practicing their speaking skills and the younger students benefit by practicing their listening skills.

Parent and family involvement

As in-service teachers, all participants felt the need to be role models and provide support to all their Latinx and CLD students. This finding is consistent with Colomer (2019), who states that as Latinx teachers become self-sufficient they may feel the responsibility to support their family and families of Latinx students.

Although many Latino parents may not be able to provide academic support to their children, it is important to know about the other type of support they inculcate to their children. Prieto and Villenas (2012) states that Latino parents, including mothers, teach their children about being una persona educada/o person of character and integrity. Besides getting to know parents’ assets and needs, schools should use creative approaches and design programs that will fit and meet the needs of their parents, families, and communities.

Relationships

This finding agrees with Split et al. (2012) who state, students who perceive their teacher as caring and accepting are likely to manifest academic and “prosocial goals valued by their teacher” (p. 1181). According to Mireles-Rios et al. (2019) “many high-achieving Latinx students are not encouraged by their high school teachers to pursue the four-year college track despite being qualified for admissions to such colleges” (p. 127). Furthermore, Mireles-Rios et al. (2019) explain that Latinx students often do not have access to information about the college application process at their high schools.

Similarly to Jesús’s teacher, Jesús is now being a role model to his students by graduating from college and building confidence in his students. According to Mireles-Rios et al. (2019), teachers have the ability to play a huge role in building students’ confidence. “For example, teachers can foster confidence in students by serving as role models and imparting their own academic experiences and stories of success and strife with their students” (Mireles-Rios, Roshandel, Simon, & Martin, p. 127). Furthermore, Irizarry and Raible (2011) add that Latino and CLDs can become empowered by helping them remove barriers that exist in schools and beyond, through culturally responsive and critical pedagogical approaches. All the participants, especially the three working at the middle school and high school level, stated sharing their college experiences with their students and encouraging their students to attend college. These participants are role models, they build trust, positive relationships, make connections, and share their personal success stories with their students, students’ parents and families.

Barriers as pre-service and in-service teachers: resilience

This finding is also consistent with Garza (2019), whose findings demonstrate Latinx students who are in classrooms with teachers that reflect their cultural, ethnic, and linguistic backgrounds experience benefits, such as higher achievement scores and are more likely to be placed in more advanced courses. Additionally, teachers that reflect the students’ cultural and linguistic backgrounds aspire feelings of connectedness and have high expectations for students (Garza, 2019). Furthermore, Garza (2019) indicates that Latinx teachers who share their students’ cultural experiences are able to demonstrate and build trust. This confianza/trust as stated by the participants creates and leads to openness and sharing of information as they did in Jesús’ classroom. Jesús’ students felt comfortable sharing their personal stories about their home countries with the whole class.

The findings also revealed that not understanding the U.S. education system was a barrier in the participants’ lives. Although now all participants are in-service teachers that have worked in the professions for more than seven years, they were at one time, first generation, English language learners, Latinx pre-service teachers. Being first generation college students at one point was a huge barrier. They did not have someone to guide them through the process of attending college. This finding is in agreement with McWhirter et al. (2013), who state that high school teachers and students often misunderstand the possibilities of attending postsecondary education for undocumented students.

In many instances, teachers place, the blame on parents and/or in the school’s administration for the students’ low achievement, then parents blame teachers for the lack of success of their children. Although in some studies, especially in the study conducted by Gándara et al. (2005), teachers do not blame parents and/or families for the lack of student achievement, rather teachers realize that the lack of assistance from these families can be related to parents’ work, language, and cultural barriers. According to Gándara et al. (2005), all students especially CLDs are more successful when all entities collaborate and help remove student barriers. Other challenges mentioned by Gándara et al. (2005) are the struggles to communicate and/or connect with students’ families and communities. The lack of time to cover the subject matter along with language development was another concern expressed by the teachers. Additionally, factors that seem to create frustration for teachers of CLDs are the wide ranges of English language proficiency in the classrooms and the lack of resources to provide effective strategies for these students (Gándara et al., 2005).

The lack of teacher preparation, lack of language and culture knowledge, not having enough time to teach the content matter, and language development, along with different levels of English language proficiency are some of the factors affecting the performance of CLDs. In addition, García et al. (2010) mention five other factors affecting CLDs’ academic performance: “[1] these students usually come from low income families, [2] parents have a low level of education, [3] parents’ English language proficiency, [4] mother’s marital status at the time of birth and [5] the majority of these families also have an ethnic/racial minority status” (p. 134). Culturally and Linguistically Diverse students on average, “exhibit three of the five risk factors at higher rates than native English speakers, they seem to be at a greater risk for academic underachievement” (García et al., 2010, p. 134). According to Olvera and Olvera (2012), students of color, especially, Latino students come from a low socioeconomic status. In 2002, Latinos’ poverty rate was at 21.8% and within Latino children ages (0–17) this poverty rate increases to 33.2% (Olvera & Olvera, 2012). If these challenges and barriers are not addressed, by the time CLD students, reach the legal dropout age, they tend to become extremely overwhelmed and dropout of school. These barriers tend to affect CLD students, especially Latino students, at a higher rate. In 2008 the dropout rate for Latinos was at 38% (Olvera & Olvera, 2012). Additionally, dropout rates for Latinos living in poverty are twice the dropout rate of other students at the same income level (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2013).

Language proficiency is another barrier CLD students must face and eventually overcome in order to perform well in school. According to Suárez Orozco et al. (2010), in the year 2007, “Fifty-two percent” of foreign-born students over the age of five were considered Limited English Proficient (p. 18). Limited English proficient students are considered to be at a very low level of English Proficiency. Suárez Orozco et al. (2010) states these CLD immigrant students may also suffer and experience some type of discrimination or racism. These are additional challenges that teachers encounter and must prepare for in order to provide the appropriate guidance and educational opportunities to their CLDs. Facella et al. (2005) also mention that a great number of CLD students that need extra second language support are being transitioned to mainstream classrooms where the teachers do not necessarily have the resources or support to meet these students’ needs. Additionally, Facella et al. (2005) state CLD students will fall behind unless they are provided with second language support.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we are passionate about finding quality strategies and best practices to implement with this student population. This research indicates the participants are currently being supported and taken into consideration when making decisions regarding the CLD programs in their schools. However, some of the findings from this research relate directly to the human capital and social capital of the teachers (Holdsworth & Maynes, 2017). Administrators should create a safe and collaborative school environment and provide plenty of opportunities for growth and professional development.

All teachers should have high expectations of all their students, including students of color, and/or CLD students. Mireles-Rios et al. (2019) state that positive student and teacher relationships have productive academic outcomes for students. In order to create an effective relationship with CLD students, teachers must earn their confianza/trust by sharing personal stories and by viewing their students as knowledge contributors. Additionally, teachers must demonstrate they care about their students. After trust is gained by the teachers and they get to know their students at an academic and personal level, they can then implement strategies according to their needs.

Similar to getting to know their students, teachers must also get to know their CLDs’ parents and families in order to understand their needs. It is imperative to involve all parents and families and provide opportunities for everyone to attend meetings and school events, which should be offered when convenient to the majority of the parents. Despite the barriers encountered by the Latinx teachers, they have overcome them and are now role models to CLD students and their families. They continue providing support and advocating for parents and families by providing them with information and resources to make them feel welcome and engaged in their children’s education. A recommendation for practice involves the recruitment and retention of teachers of color by school districts discussing the support system provided to these teachers, especially in their first couple of years in the profession. In other words, explaining the recruitment and retention process of teachers of color and discussing the support system they receive in order to work with CLD students. Another recommendation for practice is to provide opportunities for growth and professional development for teachers working with CLD students. Achinstein et al. (2010) indicate that schools that provide opportunities for teachers to network and participate in professional development tend to have higher retention rates. The participants who left their first place of employment indicated not having any opportunities for professional development or mentors to guide them through their first years of teaching.

With remote learning being now so prominent, a third recommendation for future research is the importance of significant online educational strategies to be implemented with CLD students. This research also should examine what type of support is provided to CLD parents who struggle with technology, language barriers, and come from low socioeconomic status. Future practice requires the collaboration of all school personnel to get to know and understand their student population in order to provide the appropriate support to students and families.

Disclosure statement

We started this study addressing one of the researcher’s subjectivities through the rigor of the study and intense self-monitoring. Subjectivity is a form of personal judgment that comes about through innumerable interactions within society, which influences a person’s perspective, experiences, feelings, beliefs, and desires. One of the researchers is considered a cultural insider, as an insider, we used his cultural knowledge as a guide to build good rapport with the participants. Peshkin (1993) states that subjectivities cannot and should not be eliminated from qualitative research. Continued self-awareness, consistency, and systematic self-monitoring can curb subjectivity in research. Peshkin noted that mindfulness allows the researcher to “shape what is seen and its meaning so as not to exorcise one’s subjectivities, but to exercise one’s subjectivities” (Peshkin, 1993, p. 21). By stating that one of the researchers is a cultural insider, a former English Language Learner (ELL), and English as a Second Language (ESL) teacher, we exercised our subjectivities. This researcher remained self-aware, consistent, and self-monitored in order to allow balance between the awareness of subjectivities and actions based on said subjectivities.

As a Latino, bilingual, and former ELL, he can relate to the participants through personal and cultural knowledge. According to Sensoy and DiAngelo “Personal and cultural knowledge are the explanations and interpretations people acquire from their personal experiences in their homes, with their family and with community cultures” (2012, p. 8). Most of the participants share these commonalities with one of the researchers. Being from a Latino background and sharing similar cultural knowledge allowed us to relate to participants and share our tesoros during our pláticas. Additionally, having a Latino and bilingual researcher made us cultural insiders, which impacted our study positively. As Bhattacharya states:

Other scholars demonstrated clearly when cultural outsiders from a dominant group chose to study a culture about which they had no real understanding and could not understand from their subjective positions that they had done damage and produced oppressive, incorrect, and dehumanizing accounts of cultures they had studied. Thus, many communities prefer insiders to conduct research about the communities instead of outsiders producing accounts that lead to further oppression. (2017, p. 116)

Our goal as cultural insiders is to create a comfortable environment where the participants feel as if they are having a regular conversation with friends. Having the same ethnic background as the participants does not make us more knowledgeable about the feelings, values, and practices of the participants; however, it is acknowledged for the integrity of the study. Researchers often hold misconceptions about participants’ feelings, values, and practices based on influences such as assumed cultural knowledge (Brizuela et al., 2000). One of the researchers is a Latino male, former English Language Learner (ELL), and English Language Teacher; therefore, we took our personal knowledge and experiences into consideration. However, we were diligent not to make any assumptions about us as researchers having personal knowledge of other ELLs.

Correction Statement

This article was originally published with errors, which have now been corrected in the online version. Please see Correction (https://doi.org/10.1080/15348431.2024.2307717)