Formative Years of Political Consulting in America, 1934–2000

Abstract

American political consulting began with the work of Whitaker and Baxter in the 1930s and came into its own in the 1960s. When television came into its own, candidates first turned to commercial advertisers, then in the mid-1960s to specialists who concentrated on media for political campaigns. Private political polling began in the mid-1950s and has emerged as a principal strategy for campaigns in the 1970s. Most early consultants were generalists, but with a second and third generation of consultants appearing in the 1970s through the 1990s, more niche markets were created: in fundraising, telemarketing, direct mail, candidate and opposition research, media buying, and voter data base management. Approaching the 21st century, the business of political consulting was growing and increasingly competitive. Consultants branched out to corporate and issue advocacy clients, ballot issues, state and local candidates, and international elections.

KEYWORDS:

• American elections and campaigns
• ballot initiatives
• direct mail
• media advertising
• pioneer consultants
• political consultants
• political fundraising
• polling
• telemarketing
• television

Acknowledgments

An earlier version is found at Dennis W. Johnson, “Political Consulting: The Making of a Profession,” an unpublished paper prepared for a conference on the Role of Political Consultants in Elections. Copyright © The Center for Congressional and Presidential Studies, School of Public Affairs, American University, June 19, 1998. Used by permission. Some material also appeared in Dennis W. Johnson (2009) “American Political Consulting: From Its Inception to Today.” In Routledge Handbook on Political Management, pp. 1–8. New York: Routledge, and Dennis W. Johnson (2000), “The Business of Political Consulting.” In James A. Thurber and Candice J. Nelson, Eds. Campaign Warriors: The Role of Political Consultants in Elections. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.

Notes

The firm, under Dr Richard B. Wirthlin, began as Decision Making Information, Inc.; later it was known as Wirthlin Group, then Wirthlin Worldwide, and in 2004, it was sold to Harris Interactive.

There have been various estimates on the number of individuals who considered themselves consultants. In 1989, Walter DeVries estimated that 12,000 people earned part or most of their living from political campaign consulting (DeVries 1989).

The firm's name cited is generally the original name. Some have gone through several name changes over the years as partners come and go.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Dennis W. Johnson

Dennis W. Johnson is Professor of Political Management and former Associate Dean at the Graduate School of Political Management, George Washington University. His most recent writings include, Campaigning in the Twenty-first Century: A Whole New Ballgame? (Routledge, 2011); The Laws That Shaped America: Fifteen Acts of Congress and Their Lasting Impact (Routledge, 2009); and No Place for Amateurs: How Political Consultants are Reshaping American Democracy, 2nd ed. (Routledge, 2007). He is editor of and contributor to the Routledge Handbook on Political Management (2008) and Campaigning for President 2008: Strategy and Tactics, New Voices and New Techniques (Routledge, 2009). During the 2010–2011 academic year, he was Fulbright Distinguished Lecturer, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.