Re-framing Russia’s soft power in post-accession Latvia: education reform and naturalization for stateless children

ABSTRACT

Russia declared itself the protector of Russian-speakers living in former Soviet Republics in the early 1990s and utilized a variety of hard and soft power mechanisms to influence ethnopolitics in those states. After the Baltic States gained membership in both NATO and the EU in 2004, Russia began to place more emphasis on “softer” mechanisms of influence and to rely less on military and economic levers. These “softer” mechanisms include cultivating ties with Russian-speakers through compatriot organizations, supporting cultural and educational initiatives, and using the Russian media to influence public opinion. Through an analysis of recent parliamentary debates over education and naturalization policies, this article demonstrates how Russia’s soft power agenda provides a key context in which Latvia’s policies toward Russian-speakers are made. Policymakers use Russian “soft power” frames to shape policies in more exclusionary and inclusionary directions. Consequently, while Russia may possess significant soft power resources, its influence on policymaking in target states depends to a large extent on how policymakers frame Russia’s agenda within domestic policy debates.

KEYWORDS:

• Russia
• soft power
• Latvia
• minority rights
• education reform
• stateless children

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. The Latvian Center for Human Rights, a major recipient of funds, was founded by Tatjana Ždanoka who is a leading politician for the Latvian Russian Union, a pro-Russian political party in Latvia.

2. Aleksander Gaponenko, one of the initiators of the referendum was a beneficiary.

3. Methodology for the frame analysis follows (Johnston 1995).

4. Lindermans was released on 21 May 2018.

5. “Nr: 1127 Grozījumi Vispārējās izglītības likumā nodošana komisijām” [Amendments to the Law on General Education plenary session], 8 February 2018, at https://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/464.

6. Nr: 1127 Grozījumi Vispārējās izglītības likumā 1. Lasījums [Amendemnts to the Law on General Education first reading], 22 February 2018, at https://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/468. Karlis Šadurskis (Minister of Education and Science).

7. Nr: 1127 plenary session.

8. Nr: 1127 plenary session. Hosams Abu Meri (VIENOTĪBA); Nr: 1127 first reading. Karlis Šadurskis (Minister of Education and Science); Nr: 1128 Grozījumi Izglītības likumā 3. Lasījums [Amendments to the Law on Education third reading], 22 March 2018, at https://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/474. Aldis Adamovičs (VIENOTĪBA).

9. Nr: 1127 Grozījumi Vispārējās izglītības likumā 3. Lasījums [Amendments to the Law on General Education third reading], 22 March 2018, at https://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/474.

10. Nr: 1127 plenary session. Aldis Adamovičs (VIENOTĪBA); Nr: 1127 first reading. Jānis Dombrava (VL-TB/LNNK).

11. See also the website of the Ministry of Education and Science, “Discover the important facts regarding the transition to studying in the state language.”

12. Nr: 1127 plenary session. Aldis Adamovičs (VIENOTĪBA). Nr: 1127 first reading. Rihards Kols (VL-TB/LNNK). Nr: 1128 second reading. Varis Krūmiņš (LRA).

13. Nr: 1127 first reading. Igors Pimenovs (SASKAŅA); Andris Morozovs (SASKAŅA).

14. Nr: 1128 Grozījumi Izglītības likumā 2. Lasījums [Amendments to the Law on Education second reading], 8 March 2018, at https://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/472. Andris Morozovs (SASKAŅA); Jeļena Lazareva (SASKAŅA).

15. Nr. 1127 first reading. Boriss Cilevičs (SASKAŅA).

16. Nr. 1127 first reading. Juris Viļums (Latvian Association of the Regions, LRA); Nr: 1128 second reading. Igors Pimenovs (SASKAŅA).

17. Nr: 1127 plenary session. Igors Pimenovs (SASKAŅA); Nr: 1127 first reading. Jeļena Lazareva (SASKAŅA); Andris Morozovs (SASKAŅA); Nr: 1128 second reading. Igors Pimenovs (SASKAŅA); Nr: 1128 third reading. Andris Morozovs (SASKAŅA).

18. Par Eiropas Komisijas par demokrātiju caur tiesībām (Venēcijas komisijas) atzinumu par likumprojektu “Grozījumi Izglītības likumā” (Nr.1128) un likumprojektu “Grozījumi Vispārējās izglītības likumā” (Nr.1127) [Opinion of the European Commission for Democracy through Rights (Venice Commission) on the draft law “Amendments to the Law on Education,” (Nr. 1128) and “Amendments to the Law on General Education” (Nr. 1127)], 22 February 2018, at https://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/468.

19. Nr: 1127 first reading. Boriss Cilevičs (SASKAŅA); Nr: 1128 second reading. Andrejs Klementjevs (SASKAŅA); Boriss Cilevičs (SASKAŅA); Igors Pimenovs (SASKAŅA); Nr: 1127 third reading. Igors Pimenovs (SASKAŅA).

20. Nr: 1128 second reading. Andris Morozovs (SASKAŅA); Jeļena Lazareva (SASKAŅA).

21. Nr: 1128 second reading.

22. Ibid. Aleksandrs Kiršteins (VL-TB/LNNK); Veiko Spolītis (VIENOTĪBA).

23. Nr: 1127 first reading. Aleksandrs Kiršteins (VL-TB/LNNK).

24. Nr: 1128 second reading. Jānis Dombrava (VL-TB/LNNK).

25. Nr: 1127 third reading: 57 votes in favor; 16 against; 0 abstentions; Nr: 1128 third reading: 58 votes in favor; 18 against; 0 abstentions.

26. “Nr: 961 Grozījumi Pilsonības likumā nodošana komisijām” [Nr: 961Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], 21 October 2004, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/2002_8/st_030515/st1505htm. Juris Dobelis (TB/LNNK). “Nr: 1619 Grozījumi Pilsonības likumā nodošana komisijām” [Nr: 1619 Amendments to the Law on Citizenship (1619). Plenary Session. 10 December 2009, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/Saeima9/091210/st091210.htm. Pēteris Tabūns (TB/LNNK).

27. Nr: 1023 “Par nepilsoņa statusa piešķiršanas izbeigšanu bērniem Nodošana komisijām [On the termination of granting non-citizen status to children plenary session], 21 September 2017 at https://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/437.

28. Nr: 274 “Par nepilsoņa statusa piešķiršanas izbeigšanu bērniem” [On the termination of granting non-citizen status to children] at https://titania.saeima.lv/LIVS13/SaeimaLIVS13.nsf/0/50D37CC9AFFDE5B8C22583C40033F305?OpenDocument.

29. Nr: 274 Par nepilsoņa statusa piešķiršanas izbeigšanu bērniem 1. Lasījums [On the termination of granting non-citizen status to children first reading], 9 May 2019 at https://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/536. Artūrs Tom Plešs (AP!); Nr: 274 Par nepilsoņa statusa piešķiršanas izbeigšanu bērniem 3. Lasījums [On the termination of granting non-citizen status to children third reading], 17 October 2019 at https://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/2013. Andrejs Judins (JV); Ivars Zariņš (SASKAŅA).

30. Nr: 274 first reading. Aldis Gobzems (Independent); Evija Papule (SASKAŅA); Nr: 274 Par nepilsoņa statusa piešķiršanas izbeigšanu bērniem 2. Lasījums [On the termination of granting non-citizen status to children second reading], 26 September 2019 at https://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/2010. Aldis Gobzems (Independent).

31. Nr: 274 first reading. Andrejs Judins (JAUNĀ VIENOTĪBA (JV)).

32. Ibid.

33. Nr: 274 first reading. Dace Bluķe (Attīstībai/Par! (AP!)); Andrejs Judins (JAUNĀ VIENOTĪBA (JV)). Marija Golubeva (AP!); Didzis Šmits (KPV/LV); Nr: 274 second reading. Dace Bluķe (AP!); Nr: 274 third reading. Aldis Gobzems (Independent).

34. Nr: 274 first reading. Edvīns Šnore (VL-TB/LNNK).

35. Ibid. Sandis Riekstiņš (JK).

36. Nr: 274 first reading. Edvīns Šnore (VL-TB/LNNK); Jānis Dombrava (VL-TB/LNNK); Aleksandrs Kiršteins (VL-TB/LNNK); Nr: 274 second reading. Aleksandrs Kiršteins (VL-TB/LNNK); Jānis Dombrava; Nr: 274 third reading. Jānis Dombrava (VL-TB/LNNK).

37. Nr: 274 first reading. Andrejs Judins (JAUNĀ VIENOTĪBA (JV)); Aldis Gobzems (Independent); Nr: 274 second reading. Aldis Gobzems (Independent).

38. Nr: 274 first reading. Dagmāra Beitnere-Le Galla (Jauno konservatīvo (JK)); Nr: 274 second reading. Jānis Butāns (JK).

39. Ibid. Edvīns Šnore (VL-TB/LNNK).

40. Nr: 274 first reading. Andrejs Judins (JAUNĀ VIENOTĪBA (JV)); Marija Golubeva (AP!); Aldis Gobzems (Independent); Nr: 274 second reading. Marija Golubeva (AP!); Dace Bluķe (AP!); Aldis Gobzems (Independent); Boriss Cilevičs (SASKAŅA).

41. Nr: 247 second reading. Jānis Dombrava (VL-TB/LNNK).

42. Nr: 274 first reading. Aldis Gobzems (Independent); Nr: 274 second reading. Aldis Gobzems (Independent).