Prospects of novel heterogeneous base catalysts and nanocatalysts in achieving sustainable biodiesel production

ABSTRACT

The present review primarily focuses on the perspectives and state-of-the-art of heterogeneous catalysts, nanocatalysts, biocatalysts, bifunctional catalysts, metal-organic frameworks (MOF), and covalent organic frameworks (COF) for biodiesel production. The environmental concern associated with nonrenewable fossil fuels has led to finding alternative energy sources that can be used to meet global energy demands. Biofuels such as biodiesel are one of the energy sources that could replace fossil fuels. The homogeneous acid and base catalysts are generally used for commercial biodiesel production. However, homogeneous catalysts have downsides such as toxicity, corrosion, soap formation, high wastewater output, and non-reusability. Consequently, heterogeneous acid and base catalysts have been introduced that are less sensitive to moisture and free fatty acids (FFAs), easily separated and recovered, and reusable. Recently, novel catalysts such as waste biomass-derived mesoporous heterogeneous catalysts, chemically synthesized heterogeneous catalysts, metal ion-doped heterogeneous catalysts, bifunctional acid-base catalysts, and carbonaceous char-supported hetero catalysts, nanocatalysts, MOF and COF catalysts have potential to replace homogeneous base catalysts, aid in sustainable and cost-effective biodiesel production. This review provides insights into the recent advancement of various catalysts, catalyst preparation and operations, type of catalysts and suitability, catalyst efficiency, life cycle assessment, catalyst-associated challenges, and prospects for sustainable biodiesel production.

KEYWORDS:

• Biodiesel production
• biodiesel catalyst types
• catalyst comparison
• life-cycle assessment
• future prospective

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to the Director, CSIR- Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru, India, for the encouragement and permission to publish this work.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Availability of data materials

The datasets collected during the current study are available on a public forum research database.

Author Contributions

Dhnyaneshwar Raising Rathod: Material preparation, data collection, and writing of the original manuscript

Sandesh Suresh Karkal: Assisted in data collection and read, writing, and approved the final manuscript

Akil Salim Jamadar: Read and approve the final manuscript

Aliaa M.A. Hashem: Read and approved the final manuscript

Mamatha S.S.: Read and approved the final manuscript

Suresh P V: Read and approved the final manuscript

Tanaji G. Kudre: Conceptualization, Supervision, designing, data validation, writing, review, and editing of MS original draft.

(Author 1- Dhnyaneshwar Raising Rathod, and Author 2- Sandesh Suresh Karkal, contributed equally to this manuscript)

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR, MLP-2012), India. Author Tanaji G. Kudre has received research support from CSIR, India.