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Abstract
This paper employs family instructions written by physicians in late imperial China to demonstrate how medicine was not only a technique of healing but also a platform where health, healing, and social values intertwined. I argue that the rise of the Confucian physician in late imperial China was not so much about professionalization of medicine but more about assimilating technical skills into a Confucian culture by the failed examination candidates to justify their choices of other career paths. Ideas of retribution also played an important role in this process, encouraging physicians to refine their skills and take good care of their patients in exchange for the prosperity of their own families.
Acknowledgement
I dedicate this paper to Benjamin A. Elman, my permanent mentor and spiritual guide.
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Notes
1 Yuan Tianqi, “Preface,” in Yuan Huang ed., Tingwei zalu [Miscellaneous Notes from Parents] (Yuanshi Congshu edition, 1597), 1b.
2 Zhong Yanyou, Ming-Qing jiaxun zugui yanjiun [Studies of Family Instructions and Clan Rules in Ming-Qing Period] (Ph.D. dissertation, National Normal University, 2003), 19–34.
3 Patricia Buckley Ebrey, Family and Property in Sung China: Yüan Ts'ai's Precepts for Social Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 156–171.
4 Sung Kwang-Yu, “Shilun Ming-Qing jiaxun suo yunhan de chengjiu pingjia yu jingji lunli,” [Some Perspectives on Achievement and Economical Ethics in Ming and Ch'ing Family Precepts] Hanxue yanjiu 1, no 7 (1989), 195–214. Chen Jo-shui, “Chuantong xinlingzhong de shehuiguan: Yi tongmengshu, jiaxun, shanshu wei guancha duixiang” [Visions of the Social in the Mind of Traditional Society: Observations from Primers, Family Instructions, and Morality books], in Ting-chan Le, Jo-shui Chen etal., Gonggong lingyu zai Taiwan: kunjing yu ciji [Public Sphere in Taiwan: The Predicament and Opportunity] (Taipei: Guiguan tushu gufen youxian gong si, 2004), 63–109. Ogata Kenichi, Chūgouku kinsei shitafu no nichi jyū rinri [Chinese Literati's View of Morality in Late Imperial China] (Tokyo: Chūgouku bungo kabukaishya, 2014).
5 Cynthia Joanne Brokaw, The Ledgers of Merit and Demerit: Social Change and Moral Order in Late Imperial China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3.
6 You Zian, Quanhua Jinzhen: Qingdai shanshu yanjiu [The Golden Needle of Morality: A Study of Morality Books in the Qing Period] (Tianjin: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1999); Sakai Tadao, Zhongguo shanshu yanjiu zengbuban, [Studies of Chinese Morality Books, The Supplement Edition] trans., Liu Yuebing, He Yingying Sun xuemei (Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe, 2010).
7 Brokaw, The Ledgers of Merit and Demerit, 61–109.
8 Paul Unschuld, Medical Ethics in Imperial China: A Study in Historical Anthropology (Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1979), 28–33.
9 Yuan Hao, Yuanshi jiaxun [Yuan Family Instructions] (Yuanshi Congshu edition, 1597), juan 1, 23a.
10 For the 1402 usurpation see David B. Chan, The Usurpation of the Prince of Yen, 1398–1402 (San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center, 1976); Peter Ditmanson, “Venerating the Martyrs of the 1402 Usurpation: History and Memory in the Mid and Late Ming Dynasty,” T'oung Pao, 93, no. 1 (2007), pp. 110–158; Liu Chiung-yun, “Diwang huanhun: Mingdai Jianwendi liuwang xushi de yanyi” [The Emperor's Returning Ghost: Transforming the Jianwen Emperor in Ming Dynasty China], Xinshixue 23, no. 4 (2012), 61–117.
11 Yuan Hao, Yuanshi jiaxun, juan 1, 1a–4a.
12 Ibid., 4b.
13 For the study of the Yuan family see: Tadao Sakai, Zhongguo shanshu yanjiu zengbuban, 331–335; Brokaw, The Ledgers of Merit and Demerit, 64–74.
14 Wang Ji, “Yuan Sanpo xiaozhua,” [A Biography of Yuan Sanpo] in Yuan Ren, Yiluoji [Collected Essays of Yuan Ren] (Yuanshi Congshu edition, 1597), 1a–3a.
15 Yuan Hao, Yuanshi jiaxun, juan 1, 26b.
16 Ibid., 26b–27a.
17 Yuan Hao, Yuanshi jiaxun, juan 3, 27a–31a.
18 Ibid.
19 Sun Simiao, Qianjinfang [The Prescriptions of Thousand Pieces of Gold] (Beijing: Zhongguo zhongyiyao chubanshe, 1998), 15–16.
20 Chao Yuan-ling, Medicine and Society in Late Imperial China: A Study of Physicians in Suzhou, 1600–1850 (New York: Peter Lang, 2009), 112–117.
21 Ibid.
22 Zhong Yanyou, Ming-Qing jiaxun zugui yanjiu, 38–41.
23 Brokaw, The Ledgers of Merit and Demerit, 65–66.
24 Yuan Hao, Yuanshi jiaxun, juan 1, 40a–41a.
25 Ibid., juan 2, 15a–16a.
26 Ibid., 1a–37b.
27 Yuan Huang, “Ke Yuanshi congshu yin” [Introduction to the Collectanea of the Yuans], 4b–5a.
28 Jiang Fongqing et al eds., Jiashan xianzhi嘉善縣志 [Gazetteer of the Jiashan county] (Taipei: Chenwen chubanshe, 1892, rpt. 1970), 684–685.
29 Ibid., 585, 588.
30 Ibid., 507.
31 Ibid., 588.
32 Brokaw, The Ledgers of Merit and Demerit, 67–69.
33 Yuan Huang, “Zhongzi Yiluoji xu” [Preface to the Republishing Yiluoji], in Yuan Ren, Yiluoji一螺集, 2a.
34 Yuan Tianqi comp., Tingwei zalu, 27a–28a.
35 Wang Ji, “Yuan Sanpo xiaozhua,” 2a–2b.
36 Yuan Ren, Yiluoji, 26a–26b.
37 Yuan Ren, Yiluoji, 26a–26b.
38 Yuan Tianqi comp., Tingwei zalu, 17a–18a.
39 Yuan Tianqi comp., Tingwei zalu, 33a–33b.
40 Ibid., 21b–22a.
41 Ibid., 31a–32b.
42 Wang Ji, “Yuan Sanpo xiaozhua,” 1b–2a.
43 Yuan Tianqi comp., Tingwei zalu, 30b.
44 Yuan Huang, Xuner sushuo [Common Sayings for Instructioning My Sons] in Jiashanxian difangzhi bianweihui bangongshi ed., Yuan Liaofan wenji [Collected Essays of Yuan Liaofan] 1 (Beijing: Xianzhuang shuju, 2006), 9–32.
45 Gong Tingxian, Gong Tingxian yixue quanshu [Complete Medical Works of Gong Tingxian] (Beijing: Zhongguo zhongyiyao chubanshu, 1999), 461.
46 Ibid., 136–139; 461–463; 1401–1402.
47 Li Chan, Yixue rumen [An Introduction to Medicine] (Tianjin: Tianjin kexue jishu chubanshe, 1999), 56–58.
48 For a discussion of Qing morality books see You Zian, Quanhua Jinzhen.
49 Lu Qikun, “Supplement,” in Jiating jianghua [Family Chats] (Shanghai: Fusutang, 1810), 1a–5b.
50 Lu Qikun, “Table of Contents,” in Jiating jianghua (Suzhou: Shijinglou, 1837), 1b.
51 Lu Qikun, Jiating jianghua (Shanghai: Wenhaitang, 1827), juan 1, 7a. I used this edition simply because it was available.
52 Ibid., juan 1, 7a–9a.
53 Ibid., juan 1, 10a.
54 Ibid., juan 1, 9a–10a.
55 Ibid., juan 3, 14b–16b.
56 Angela Leung, “Medical Ethics in China,” in Encyclopedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, H. Selin ed. (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997), 667–669.
57 Jo-shui Chen, “Chuantong xinlingzhong de shehuiguan: Yi tongmengshu, jiaxun, shanshu wei guancha duixiang,” 63–109.
58 Benjamin A. Elman, “Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China,” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 50, no. 1 (1991), 7–28.
59 Chu Pingyi, “Song-Ming zhiji de yishi yu ruyi” [Narrations of Histories of Medicine from the Song to the Ming and the Rise of the Confucian Physician], Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, vol. 77, no. 3 (2006), 401–449.
60 Benjamin A. Elman, A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China, 295–370.
Additional information
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Pingyi Chu
Pingyi Chu obtained a PhD in history from UCLA in 1994. He is a researcher at the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica in Taiwan. He works on history of science and Christianity in China during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.