Role of spiritual experiences in shaping the quality of intergenerational relationships - exploring views of older adults in South India

ABSTRACT

Objectives

To investigate how the older adults in India use spiritual thoughts and practices in their everyday lives to shape intergenerational care relationships and cope with challenges in such relationships.

Methods

Twenty-five qualitative interviews were conducted with older adults aged 55 to 85 years from two South Indian states from the diverse socio-economic backgrounds. Interview transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis principles.

Results

The analysis shows that the spirituality of older adults shapes the quality of relationships with their kin. Participation in daily spiritual exercises such as prayer, chanting, self-reflection, and text reading help older adults develop personal resources such as a sense of peace, patience, acceptance, and forgiveness. This personal transformation helps older adults gain a stronger understanding of their kin and reduces pressure on the quality of intergenerational relationships in the family. They see spirituality as a vehicle, providing a structure for knowledge exchange, joint participation in religious events, and spiritual discussions with family members and others in the community. These experiences strengthen older persons’ emotional bonds with their families and help them develop larger social networks.

Conclusion

Spiritually inspired resources seem to help older adults to transform their disadvantaged position into a more rewarding and productive state.

KEYWORDS:

• Coping
• religion
• intergenerational relations
• qualitative methods
• spirituality

Introduction

Intergenerational bonding and care relationships have become a central focus of various debates and discussions on older adults care as meteoric economic development and socio-cultural transformations have altered traditional family structures. Such shifts have been criticized to affect the care arrangements of older adults in India. This criticism inspired us to gain a deeper understanding of the intergenerational exchange of care and support in Indian families amidst current social transitions. Among a number of mechanisms that work in the exchange of care and support across members of different generations in both traditional and modern Indian families, one mechanism identified by our older adult participants was that of spirituality. Therefore, in consideration of changes in living arrangements and differences in spirituality experiences, we focus on showing how the spirituality of older adults affects their intergenerational relationships with their children and grandchildren.

Spirituality and religiosity

While spirituality, in general, is considered a broader concept that encompasses religiosity (Holmes, 2002), distinguishing spirituality from religiosity has always been difficult, as their definitions can vary within the same culture (Koenig, 2012) and across cultures. Researchers (Koenig, 2012) have found it difficult to define spirituality because it means different things to different people. Some authors (Astrow et al., 2001; Zinnbauer et al., 1997) have characterized spirituality as one’s quest for meaning in life, peace, truth and self-fulfillment, and a search for things relating to the transcendent (Chattopadhyay, 2007; Zimmer et al., 2016). Religiosity, on the other hand, involves observing a certain set of principles, values, beliefs and practices in one’s life that are generally structured and institutionalized (Sulmasy, 2002; Zimmer et al., 2016). Wink and Dillon (2008) offered a more specific understanding of both concepts: by being religious, people accept and adapt to an existing space and undergo personal transformation to relate to a sacred other (e.g., God) through organized activities.

Spirituality, on the other hand, involves developing a new space, having personal control over external authority and sometimes borrowing certain principles from traditional religious beliefs for personal growth. Although some authors claim there is a scholarly consensus that spirituality is expressed in different ways while religiosity constitutes a more defined way of expressing one’s spirituality (Sulmasy, 2002), others (Ivanovski & Malhi, 2007; Shapiro & Carlson, 2009) emphasize the close association between spirituality and religiosity as both include certain similar practices like prayer and meditation. Given the understanding from these debates/arguments that it is difficult to differentiate spirituality and religiosity, we chose to use spirituality as an overarching category, that includes religiosity, for this study. Hence, we focus on the enactment of spiritual values, beliefs and practices in older adults daily lives and how these enactments of spirituality help them to deal with changes in intergenerational relationships.

Global aging and spirituality

There has recently been burgeoning research interest in spiritual experiences and their impacts on the lives of older adults. Population ageing has become a global phenomenon where the proportion of elderly population is predicted to rise to 22% of the world’s total population in 2050 (Zimmer et al., 2016). Due to this trend, the mechanisms and intersections that promote older adults’ well-being have drawn the attention of both researchers and policy makers. Most related research has focused on the association between spirituality and two broad dimensions of well-being among older people: one set of the literature has focused on studying spirituality and physical wellbeing. Among these works, several (Park et al., 2017; Zimmer et al., 2016) have confirmed that spirituality positively affects the physical health outcomes of older adults in mitigating heart related ailments, hypertension, stroke related complications, high cholesterol and physical pain due to cancer. However, due to subjective understandings and diverse spiritual practices and related meanings across cultures, synthesizing evidence on the association between spirituality and physical well-being remains a challenge (Zimmer et al., 2016). Several studies (Haber, 2011; Park, 2005) have claimed that religious values, beliefs and practices are very important for older adults in managing physical challenges.

Another set of literature claims that spirituality help improve the psychosocial well-being of older adults. Behavioral scientists have posited (Ng & Fisher, 2016; Rainville & Mehegan, 2019) that spirituality improve emotional well-being and psychological functioning primarily in terms of coping with life challenges, realizing a meaningful life and maintaining interpersonal relationships in different social circles. From his review, Koenig (2012) concludes that religiosity helps individuals manage day-to-day stress by enhancing positive emotions and promotes prosocial behavior. Besides providing aid, religious centers are perceived to serve as a platform for supportive exchanges within families and through informal interactions (Silverstein & Giarrusso, 2013; Zimmer et al., 2016). However, some works (Cohen & Johnson, 2017) have found that religion can have the opposite effect on human well-being, as certain values and beliefs can cause stress, anxiety, pain and dissatisfaction in life. Most of the literature reviewed has adopted quantitative approaches and predominantly finds positive associations. However, research demonstrating how the spiritual experiences of the older adults help them in their everyday social relational encounters and affect their wellbeing is missing. Therefore, gerontologists (Koenig, 2012; Zimmer et al., 2016) have called for more in-depth studies to better understand the mechanisms underpinning the association between the spiritual experiences, intergenerational relationships and well-being of the older adults.

Spirituality and the older adults in Indian families

India is known for its spirituality, and for the traditional multigenerational co-residence of families. Religion has historically been part and parcel of Indian culture, which is deeply ingrained and expressed through day-to-day behaviors, particularly by older adults (Medora, 2007). Hinduism is one of the four religions created in India along with Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism (Chattopadhyay, 2007) and is practiced by more than 80% of the Indian population (Medora, 2007). Law of Karma is one of the Hindu principles (Tiwari & Pandey, 2013), which states that each and every action and behavior has consequences. This principle encourages family members of multiple generations to live under one roof and reciprocate care and support among members (Chadha, 2004). Although this joint living arrangement among multigenerational families is said to originate from Hinduism, families following other religions (for example Muslims and Christians, constituting 14% and 2% to the total Indian population respectively according to 2011 census data) follow the same structure. Because of these beliefs and practices, sociologists (Chadha, 2004; Medora, 2007) argue that the spirit of family centeredness and reciprocal relationships rooted in religious values remains intact in India in spite of socio-economic transformations.

Rejecting those claims, however, demographers (Mane, 2016; Sathyanarayana et al., 2014) asserted that globalization-led socio-demographic transitions have changed the traditional family structure and values rooted in religion. From these shifts in social structure, Indian gerontologists (Kalavar & Jamuna, 2008) view the social relations of older adults as having become more complex and dynamic. Reciprocal care and support in traditional joint families has declined (Sathyanarayana et al., 2014). Experiences of isolation and limited social interactions among older adults have become more prevalent, and intergenerational care relationships have changed (Brijnath, 2012; Dommaraju, 2016). Ugargol and Bailey (2021) found that due to imbalances in the reciprocity of intergenerational care and support have caused bitterness and disappointment in family relationships. Amidst these shifts and dynamic living arrangements, the role of culturally ingrained religiosity or spirituality in managing such turbulent intergenerational relationships has not been sufficiently studied.

In terms of understanding the impact of spirituality on the lives of the older adults, several studies have attempted to understand the association between the spirituality and their well-being from a quantitative lens. Researchers (Ladusingh & Ngangbam, 2016; Mishra et al., 2017) have posited that spirituality improves the physical and psychological well-being of older adults. Whereas, other studies (Chokkanathan, 2013; Jahan & Khan, 2014) have documented positive effects of spirituality on psychosocial support received from family members and on personal relationships with others using standardized measures while not giving due consideration to spiritual diversity. Again, such studies provide a positive account of the associations between the spirituality, intergenerational relationships and well-being of the older adults. This inspired us to determine whether such processes change amidst changes in family structures and diverse spiritual practices, and how such processes affect older persons’ day-to-day social experiences within and outside of the family.

Given the dearth of qualitative enquiries exploring the mechanisms of such associations while keeping spirituality as a focal point, we aim to investigate how the older adults perceive the way their spiritual thoughts and practices in their everyday lives shape the intergenerational relationships and cope with challenges in such relationships.

Materials and methods

Background

This paper is based on a follow-up study of a larger qualitative multi-stakeholders enquiry on intergenerational relationship exchanges and its impact on well-being of older adults in South India, where older adults identified spiritual experiences as a mechanism that affects their relationship with the kin. Two processes (better education and intensified economic pursuits) have been claimed to cause a change in intergenerational relationship dynamics and traditional values that once held multi-generational families together (Mane, 2016; Samanta et al., 2014). Although the difference among all five south Indian states are not substantial, the state of Tamil Nadu, which scores are highest and the state of Telangana, which scores are lowest on such developmental indicators (Census of India, 2011; Organisation for Economic Co-operation Development, 2017) were selected for the study.

Participants and sampling

Older adults with three different living arrangements were selected for the study: those with traditional living arrangements (TLAs) who live with their children in the same household; those with modern living arrangements (MLAs) who live alone or with a spouse only; and those living in residential care facility (RCF). The study included participants of diverse sociodemographic backgrounds to capture the range of spiritual experiences of older adults and their impacts on intergenerational relationships. Older adults not having a long-term mental illness and able to hear and respond to our interview questions were selected. Following this inclusion criteria, we interviewed 25 participants who qualified and were willing to participate in the study. Out of which, 17 were females and 8 were males. Selection of participants ceased at the point of data saturation, where the similar spiritual experiences were more often reported. The participants were from 55 to 85 years of age, and the study included participants from both urban and rural areas following three major religions: 15 belonged to Hinduism, 9 to Christianity and 1 Islam. Among them, 14 were widowed, 10 were married and one was single. With regard to living arrangements, 12 participants lived in TLAs, 6 lived in MLAs and 7 lived in RCFs.

Study approach

Given our focus on understanding older adults’ spiritual experiences and uses of spirituality in daily social interactions, we conducted qualitative interviews (Hennink et al., 2011, p. 10). A semi-structured in-depth interview guide was developed after reviewing the available literature. Interview questions focused on the kinds of spiritual/religious activities the participants were involved in, the ways that they had integrated spirituality into their daily lives and the ways in which spiritual experiences helped them in social situations. The interview guide was then translated into two local languages: Tamil and Telugu. Ethical approval was obtained (#MUEC003/2017) from the ethics committee of Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), India. Following the ethical approval, the participants were approached at their convenience with the help of NGOs providing care and welfare services for older adults, and senior citizens association in the selected states. Upon taking consent from the participants, interviews were conducted in their own homes, day care centers, nursing homes and in NGO office space. The duration of the interviews ranged between 20 and 40 minutes.

Data collection

When approaching potential participants, we explained the objectives and nature of the study in their language both orally and in a handout. We also clarified that their anonymity would be ensured and that they could withdraw from the study at any point. The participants’ consent was then provided in writing and oral form for participation in the study and to audio record the interviews. A professional service provider transcribed the recorded interviews verbatim, and the researchers checked the transcriptions for accuracy.

Data analysis

The interview transcripts were reviewed several times on the NVIVO 12 interface to capture the range of participants’ experiences living in different arrangements. Following the thematic analysis principles, at the first level, we created a code list, including deductive and inductive codes (Hennink et al., 2011, p. 218). After a repeated examination of the developed codes and related texts, the authors collectively finalized the code list, and the associated codes were then categorized to encapsulate the participants’ spiritual experiences and their usefulness in daily interpersonal situations. Those categories were further converted into themes (Smith & Osburn, 2015) and described below:

Results

This section of the paper discusses the spiritual experiences of older adults and how they affect their intergenerational relationships with their kin and others. We describe the importance that the participants ascribe to their spiritual practices and then how their participation in spiritual engagements improves their relationships with younger relatives and helps them cope with the loss of familial relationships and build broader social networks.

Spirituality – an important part of life

Almost all of the participants viewed spirituality as a central part of their lives irrespective of whether they lived with younger kin, independently or in a RCF. Most of them reported trying to be spiritual by following a particular religion while others engaged in other spiritual practices such as yoga, meditation and pranayama (breathing techniques). All of the participants regularly engaged in spiritual practices, through which they were able to realize and redefine their purpose in life.

A participant in a TLA said,

We are a very religious family. We do our prayers daily without fail and pray for everybody’s health and well-being. (Female, 65 years old, married, urban)

Another in a MLA said,

The minute I wake up, I pray to him. Then again, before I sleep, I pray to God. Every time I go out, I pray and then leave the house.(Female, 62 years old, married, urban)

A participant living in a RCF said,

I never start my day without praying. Religion plays a major role in my life. (Female, 74 years old, widowed, urban)

Spirituality improves the quality of kin relationships

With spirituality being a central part of life, the participants broadly spoke about two ways in which spirituality helps them improve the quality of their relationships with their younger relatives. Spirituality first helps build personal resources and second provides structure for strengthening intergenerational relationships with kin.

According to the participants, as a resource, spirituality helps them feel at peace. Through their daily practices of chanting religious hymns, prayer, visiting religious places and reading spiritual texts, they feel relaxed and reassured. Below are some examples of the participants’ experiences:

I can spend time visiting temples, etc., which gives me pleasure.Those visits give me a sense of peace. (Male, 77 years old, married, urban, TLA)

I feel peaceful. I also feel very relaxed after praying to God. I feel like all my burdens have been lifted. More than when I stay at home, when I come and go from here (church), I feel peaceful. (Female, 78 years old, married, urban, MLA)

I have always been taught by my family members to value God more than anyone and to put my burdens on him… I feel very peaceful. GoddessKarumari Amman (Goddess name) has helped and guided me throughout in my life. (Female, 74 years old, urban, widowed, RCF)

The feeling of tranquility gained through spiritual practices had inspired the participants to develop other personal resources that help improve the quality of their intergenerational relationships with family members. In particular, participants from TLA spoke about the tolerance that they had developed through spirituality. Though they reported feeling grateful and privileged to live with their children under one roof and enjoying their daily company, they also mentioned experiencing misunderstandings and conflicts in their families. Through their regular spiritual exercises, the participants reported reflecting on their behaviors in such conflicting situations in light of their spiritual values and beliefs and thinking about ways to resolve such differences. This spiritually enlightened reflection helps them develop patience, which they reported to be crucial in strengthening their relationships with their kin.

I have my daughter with me now and I have the Grace of God and his love. I do not need anything else … I pray (during a time of misunderstanding) to God to understand my mistakes. I am never hard on her or scold her. When she speaks harshly, I tolerate it. (Female, 75 years, widowed, urban)

Another resource that spirituality had inspired the participants to develop was an empathetic understanding toward their kin for the struggles and challenges that they experience. This resource is believed to reduce pressure on the quality of their relationships with their children as expressed by one participant.

He (son) does not talk about it, but he cries silently. He feels guilty for making me do all of these things for him, but I used to tell him that God would definitely give him a good life … I know that he will suffer (due to his illness) if he goes to work. How could I tell him to go to work? As a mother, whatever I can do for him I will do. (Female, 57 years old, widowed, urban)

Besides helping them develop personal resources, the participants claimed that their spirituality served as a vehicle to improve the quality of their intergenerational relationships with family members. Several participants living in traditional and nuclear family units recognized that spirituality creates an opportunity to take part in spiritual engagements with their kin. A participant (Female, 75 years, widowed, urban) from TLA said, “I go to church every Sunday with my daughter and grandchildren”.

A participant living independently also felt glad to occasionally participate in religious ceremonies at worship centers with kin. These joint engagements were perceived to strengthen emotional bonds between family members not living under the same roof as quoted below:

I visit the church regularly at least once a week. Sometimes I go to church with my family and grandchildren every Sunday for prayer meetings … I have good relationships with my grandchildren also. They visit me in the evenings or I go see them. My sons are also caring and loving. I have not experienced any fights or misunderstandings with them. (Female, 71 years old, married, urban)

The participants also felt that spirituality had created a strong foundation in shaping their relationships with their younger relatives through knowledge exchange. The spiritual wisdom that they had gained by reading spiritual texts, attending sermons and lectures and participating in informal discussions over their lifetime had created opportunities to transfer their knowledge of religious and moral values to younger relatives. Below are few experiences of the participants:

I told him (grandson) that while his education is very important, he must learn good virtues (rooted in spiritual values) like good moral habits and that this is more important. I have taught him good manners like … thanking anyone who has done him a favor however small and to say sorry to whenever he has disturbed others. I have taught him sharing habits like sharing his food with other students who may have forgotten to bring their own… He learns and accepts this with pleasure. (Male, 77 years old, married, urban)

I tell stories about Jesus and morals, of how girls should behave, etc. For my eldest grandson I used to advise on moral values and good manners. They take my advice. They also used to tell me about their other grandparents’ advice, and we discussed this as well. (Female, 63 years old, widow, urban)

Beyond this spiritual knowledge exchange, the participants viewed spirituality to be serving as a common interest between them and their younger relatives that structure intergenerational interactions within their families. While explaining those interactions, a participant (Female, 81 years old, married, urban) said,

He (son) will ask for my opinion and will discuss with me… They do discuss with me how to keep things (related to religion) in order in the house. My son and daughter-in-law are very fond of Ganesh (name of a Hindu God). These pictures (of Gods) displayed in our house are all drawn by my daughter.

Some expressed that they exchange spiritual ideologies and experiences through informal discussions with their kin. Though their views and opinions in some ways differ, in general, they share a common spiritual understanding, which helps them develop a positive relationship with their children. Answering to a question on the opinion about her interaction with her son both in person and on an electronic platform, a participant (Female, 81 years old, married, urban) said, “We (participant and her son) both take liberties in advising each other on spiritual things. He is very religious as well, and all (religious) habits [refers to reading scripture, prayers, going to temples regularly, and performing rituals] are still with him”.

Such intergenerational knowledge exchange takes place on a regular basis in traditional families as family members live under one roof whereas in modern families, such exchanges take place through electronic mediums and informal discussions held during personal visits.

Finally, spirituality was identified as a tool for helping their kin through difficult life experiences. By being thoughtful of and praying for the concerns of their younger relatives, the participants reported supporting their kin in overcoming challenges and struggles.

I pray for God to give my son a good life and for him to earn a living to care for himself. (Female, 57 years old, widowed, urban)

My grandchildren are very nice and well-behaved boys now. Until they get married at around 25 or 30 years of age, we don’t know what will happen, and only God can guide us. (Female, 55 years old, married, rural)

The development of personal resources through regular spiritual practice and making effective use of opportunities offered by spirituality thus helps older adults improve the quality of their relationships with kin.

Spirituality facilitates coping with an absence of intergenerational family relationships

However, not all of the participants reported experiencing positive intergenerational relationships with their family members; for some families, such quality relationships were reported as being absent. This loss of contact with kin caused participants of all living arrangements to feel lonely, and such participants used spirituality as a tool to overcome loneliness.

Through the spiritual act of daily prayer, such participants reported processing their feelings surrounding the loss of emotional bonds and diminished intergenerational relationship. This exercise helped them gradually overcome such negative feelings, accept their situation, and live with their circumstances. One participant from TLA said:

My eldest son was looking after me well when he was alive. He died in an accident. If had he been still alive, he would still be taking good care of me [cries]. I Pray to God to take me also. I do not know what else is in store for me here … With God’s grace, somehow I am managing and living my life. (Female, 70 years old, widowed, rural)

Participants living in MLA and RCF approached the loss of family relationships differently. Inspired by their spiritual values, some participants had chosen to not allow thoughts concerning negative relational dynamics with their children to interfere with their daily lives and to shift their focus to thinking of and praying and wishing for their children’s well-being. This shift in perspective from feeling abandoned or hurt to having goodwill towards their children helped these participants develop a sense of forgiveness, yet another personal resource.

Irrespective of religion, I used to have many thoughts about my children and grandchildren, about the way they treated me, etc. I used to pray to God to take care of them no matter what … I feel calm and do not worry because I have laid all of them onto God. (Female, 62 years old, married, urban)

It is good for me and I am comfortable, but I have lost the company of my children and grandchildren. I do not feel bad about this. We do not want them to be inconvenienced. (Male, 72 years old, widowed, urban)

Moreover, spirituality was reported to help these participants manage loneliness. Non-governmental organizations and religious groups have created platform for group prayer and discussion groups related to spiritual texts. Some of the participants had made use of these structures to develop new networks with others. In doing so, they were able to overcome the loss of relationships with their family members.

I miss my family. I lost my wife 12 years ago and I do not have children. Therefore, there is no other way. Right now it is about meeting people, known and unknown. (Male, 80 years old, widowed, urban)

Without this (discussions on spiritual texts), I am in a very uncomfortable place. From these discussions with my friends, I feel better. (Male, 72 years old, widowed, urban)

In addition to helping older adults develop personal resources, they perceive spirituality helps them deal with emotional difficulties caused by limited or absence of family contacts.

Spirituality helps build broader social networks

The participants also generally perceived spirituality as helping them develop broader contacts with people outside of their immediate social milieu, rendering them less dependent on their younger relatives. Even the participants of all living arrangements who enjoyed good quality intergenerational familial relationships viewed spirituality as a tool for developing an extended network of social relationships. The structure created by NGOs and religious groups creates opportunities for participants to meet people with a common interest in group prayer, worship sessions and spiritual discussion. Though participants had opportunities for such religious meetings, some of them joined daily, some weekly and some according to their convenience. Such engagements had helped the participants develop an extended network of social relationships, and they appreciated the warmth they enjoyed through such relationships.

The pastor and pastor amma (pastor’s wife) talk to us affectionately and pray for us … Yes, we know people there and ask about each other. This kind of conversation makes us happy and strong (laughs). (Female, 75 years old, widowed, urban)

We are four people here, and we come here regularly. We pray and eat together here … I am very happy with my friends. (Female, 78 years old, married, urban)

As a result, the participants felt supported and encouraged, and enjoyed a sense of belonging.

As observed from intergenerational dynamics within families, some participants had used their spirituality to share spiritual values and ideologies with non-kin of different generations in community spaces and religious centers. They felt useful in contributing to the spiritual wellness of others despite them not being relatives.

I used to tell them (volunteers at the day care center) to study well, care for their elders, etc., and they affectionately accept our advice. Most of them are Christians, so I tell them to believe in God and seek his help for all their needs, whether for exams or any other need. (Female, 75 years old, widowed, urban)

I initially just attended the lectures (on the Bhagavat Geeta). After joining the morning walking group, they asked me to take classes, as I am an older man. I have studied and taught with them. Roughly 20 people (from different age group) used to come for half an hour. (Male, 72 years old, widowed, urban)

I even teach games and bhajan (singing hymns) … I was the senior who taught all these in this area. (Male, 68 years old, widowed, urban)

Other participants viewed their spirituality as a means by which to reach out to others who are less privileged. Inspired by spiritual ideologies, many believed themselves to be blessed with more than sufficient financial resources and thus shared their fortune with the disadvantaged in their communities. By practicing this spiritual value of sharing resources, those participants felt a sense of purpose by contributing to the well-being of those with fewer resources.

Besides this, I help poor people in my community. I contribute to my servant’s children’s, painter’s and plumber’s education. I buy them books and shoes… In addition, I give my daughter in law’s, daughter’s and grandchildren’s clothes to the poor. I think marginalized people should be given at least a little extra care. We are better off, so we should help them. (Female, 81 years old, married, urban)

Discussion and conclusion

The aim of this paper was to understand how the older adults perceive the way spirituality shapes their intergenerational relationships with their younger relatives. To this end, we interviewed older adults from both traditional as well as modern living arrangements, in two south Indian states. The way these older adults, regardless of their living arrangement, talk about spirituality reveals that they experience spiritual practice to strengthen their relationships with kin and non-kin, while it helps to cope with emotional losses caused by loosening of familial ties due to modern life. Though the participants lived in three contrasting living arrangements, the kind of spiritual practices they followed found to be more or less similar. In their stories, we can distinguish several interconnected ways in which spirituality helps them to deal with changing intergenerational relationships. First, these stories talk about how spirituality helps building alternative social networks, making older adults less dependent on emotional ties with kin in both living arrangements. However, in this study participants from nuclear family and residential care facility seem to develop extended network outside the family more compared to their counterparts living in traditional families. Further, participants from all living arrangements found their spiritual interests and personal resources facilitate building these new networks.

Second, participation in various spiritual practices provides clues as how to manage challenging social situations. In line with findings from studies by, for instance Dunn and Riley-Doucet (2007), Koenig (2012), Rainville and Mehegan (2019), Shaw et al. (2016) and Zimmer et al. (2016), the interviews with older adults paint a picture of how spiritual practice and the enactment of spiritual values and beliefs in the form of prayer, text reading, self-reflection, chanting and meditation helps them to become more empathetic and forgiving and to accept changes calmly and patiently. These practices provide them with the tools to overcome disappointment, while enhanced awareness of and insight in differences between them and their kin, helps them to attune their expectations, and to overcome frictions and misunderstandings. It helps them, they tell us, to improve relationships with their kin, hence enhances their well-being. Moreover, confirming the study by King et al. (2006) the elderly in our study describe how shared spirituality encourages knowledge transfer from older to younger generations. Receiving appreciation for such knowledge from their kin helps older adults feel useful and strengthens their relationships with their kin.

Third, spiritual experiences, when shared with kin, are presented as a basis for securing and tightening emotional bonds with family members. Confirming findings from studies by King et al. (2006)nd Zimmer et al. (2016), the older adults in our study pointed out that shared spiritual experience, for example during joint participation in worship services with their kin can help building emotional bonds. These spiritual experiences are felt to create emotional closeness and strengthen the foundations of positive intergenerational relationships.

These observations indicate that, regardless of living arrangements, spiritually grounded familial values are still practiced in many Indian families. They suggest that spirituality creates a sense of belongingness not in its traditional form, but adapted to modern social circumstances. Globalization has not only led to a rise in new nuclear family structures, but have also impacted traditional extended families where both male and female adult children are becoming increasingly engaged in labour market and have less time for care and support of their older kin. As claimed by studies (Brijnath, 2012; Sathyanarayana et al., 2014), in many modern families positive intergenerational relationships are eroding, claiming that the breaking down of traditional values affect older adults’ well-being, as it makes them feel unsupported and lonely. Studies such as by Dommaraju (2016) and Lamb (2013)therefore emphasize the need for new care arrangements. Showing how spirituality helps tackling changes brought about by modern life, the older adults in our study however paint a rather different picture. Spirituality helps them to understand, accept and manage these changes. Additionally, spirituality not only provides new networks that can compensate for strong bonds with kin; shared spirituality actually strengthens emotional bonding with family as well. Although questions were asked about negative impact of spirituality on their relationship with their kin, participants seem to view spirituality as a tool that strengthens positive intergenerational relationship within families. However, the observations of the study cannot be generalized to the selected states, as the number of participants is small.

While not denying the need for new non-family based care arrangements in particular cases, the insights of our study, suggest that creating space for the older adults to express their spirituality and to create opportunities for older adults and their kin to share spiritual practice and experience may already provide them with tools to cope with changing circumstances. Therefore, it will be worthwhile to explore the role of spirituality in improving intergenerational communication within and outside family. Moreover, future research could focus on investigating the perception of younger generation towards spirituality and the way it strengthens the quality of intergenerational relationship with their older relatives, which might be useful to see how spirituality can be integrated in the intergenerational programs.

Acknowledgments

We express our sincere gratitude to all participants of the study and the supporting organizations. Besides, we thank the Government of Netherlands for supporting the study through EP Nuffic, Netherlands Fellowship Program.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The work was supported by the EP-Nuffic [30.95.6343-N].