Engaging in peer conversation about slimming predicts body dissatisfaction in Chinese college women: A study in Hong Kong

Abstract

Body dissatisfaction is associated with many psychological and physical problems such as depression and eating disorders. Recently body image dissatisfaction has become a pervasive problem in modern societies including Hong Kong. Using a sample size of 1264 young female adults, I conducted a hierarchical multiple regression and found that Hong Kong young female adults’ degree of body dissatisfaction is predicted by both contextual and individual factors in the following order: peer conversation about slimming, body consciousness, thin-ideal internalization, thin aspiration, and anti-fat affectivity. Media exposure to slimming information, on the other hand, was not a significant predictor of body dissatisfaction. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Keywords:

• Body dissatisfaction
• Peer influence
• Body consciousness
• Thin ideals
• Chinese females

It is well documented that low body image will increase the subsequent risk for the emergence of dieting behavior, eating disorders symptomatology, low self-esteem, self-objectification, decreased psychological well-being, emotional distress, feelings of worthlessness and powerlessness, depression, body shame, sexual problems, obesity, and dramatic measures to alter appearance, such as cosmetic surgery or steroid use (Johnson & Wardle, 2005; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001; Smolak, 2004; Stice & Shaw, 2002). Recently body image dissatisfaction has been acknowledged as a pervasive problem in modern societies (Polivy & Herman, 2002).

Much of the body image research has been conducted in predominantly White samples (Grabe & Hyde, 2006; Morry & Staska, 2001). Nevertheless, some recent research indicates that the problem of body dissatisfaction has also become pervasive in Asian female samples (Lu & Qi, 2004; Luo, Parish, & Laumann, 2005). As such, there is an urgent need to examine factors that associate body dissatisfaction in Asian females.

Theoretical Framework

Harrison and Hefner (2006) maintain that the effects of influencing factors on individuals’ body image may operate differently at different life stages, and thus there is a need for researchers to segment different age groups for investigation. Young adulthood is a particular segment whereby individuals are in the transitional period from adolescence to mature adulthood. The purpose of the present paper is to explore whether and how degree of body dissatisfaction is predicted by individual and contextual factors in Hong Kong young female adults. The following sections are devoted to reviewing the relevant literature on which the current theoretical framework is premised.

Individual factors

Thin-ideal internalization

Thin-ideal internalization refers to “the extent to which an individual cognitively accepts the thin societal standard of attractiveness as his/her own personal standard and engages in behaviors designed to help him-/herself meet the standard” (Harrison & Hefner, 2006, p. 154). That is to say, thin-ideal internalization alludes to how much one buys into the importance of thinness (Bearman, Presnell, Martinez, & Stice, 2006). Through social comparison (Botta, 1999) and/or realization of the actual–ideal discrepancy (Harrison, 2001), individuals may start to internalize the thin ideal in their evaluations of their own and others’ body figures. Specifically, social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) holds that comparison of the self to idealized images usually results in denigration of the self instead of the ideal. Self-discrepancy theory (SDT) (Higgins, Bond, Klein, & Strauman, 1986) assumes that when individuals become aware of the discrepancy between their actual and ideal selves people experience emotional distress. Hence:

•	H1: Thin-ideal internalization will be positively associated with body dissatisfaction in Hong Kong young female adults.

Thin aspiration

The Competence × Importance model (Mendelson, Mendelson, & Andrews, 2000) holds that a person's self-evaluation of his/her body or appearance is predicted by feelings of adequacy in the domain and the perceived importance of the domain. Mendelson and his associates (2000) confirm in their Western adolescent sample that participants who thought weight was important tended to rate their global self-esteem, appearance, and body satisfaction low. Subsequent studies also confirm in Western adult samples that satisfaction with one's appearance is determined not only by one's appraisal of one's appearance but also by a perception of the importance of physical appearance (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002; Davis, Dionne, & Shuster, 2001). In general, researchers have found that those who believe that physical appearance is important and aspire to a thin body figure tend to be at greater risk of developing a body image disorder (Lawrence, Fauerbach, & Thombs, 2006). Thus:

•	H2: Thin aspiration will be positively associated with body dissatisfaction in Hong Kong young female adults.

Body consciousness

Knauss, Paxton, and Alsaker (2008) explain that when individuals are conscious of their own appearance, they are assessing their own body using an outside observer's view. This adoption of a socially defined body concept then becomes a personal standard. The more individuals are aware of this standard, the more they compare their own body with the standard, and body dissatisfaction results. This awareness of body figure develops during adolescence and carries through young and mid-aged adulthood (Knauss et al., 2008; McKinley, 2006). Knauss and his associates (2008) found that a positive relationship exists between body consciousness and body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls. Tiggemann and Kuring (2004) found in a sample of young female adolescents that body consciousness is associated with depressive mood and disordered eating. Therefore, based on the existing literature:

•	H3: Degree of body consciousness will be positively associated with body dissatisfaction in Hong Kong young female adults.

Anti-fat affectivity

Teachman, Gapinski, Brownell, and Jeyaram (2003) suggest that anti-fat affectivity is prevalent in modern societies, and that this affectivity often evokes anti-fat bias against overweight persons. While the effects of individuals’ anti-fat affectivity on their evaluations of other people are evident (Puhl & Brownell, 2001; Teachman et al., 2003), further examination is needed to determine whether such affectivity affects individuals’ self-evaluation of their body figure.

According to the schema theory, individuals’ negative schemata about a particular aspect often result in selective attention to negative information about oneself and the world in that aspect. Following this logic, a person with an anti-fat affectivity often adopts negative schemata toward fatness (i.e., organized mental structures about fat image that carries a mostly negative content). This schema in turn may lead to a biased processing of body-related information and heightened fear of fatness (McKenzie, Williamson, & Cubic, 1993), resulting in selective attention to the negative elements of others’ and one's own bodies. Such information-processing bias induced by anti-fat affectivity may result in increased attention to displeasing body characteristics and eventually foster a sense of dissatisfaction with one's body figure. Hence:

•	H4: Anti-fat affectivity will be positively associated with body dissatisfaction in Hong Kong young female adults.

Contextual factors

Media exposure to slimming information

Thus far the focus has been put on examining the effects of media exposure to body ideal imagery on individuals’ body image. Few studies have examined whether media exposure to slimming information yields similar effects on body image as does media exposure to body ideal imagery. Cultivation theory alludes to a possible association between media exposure to slimming information and body dissatisfaction. Specifically, the theory posits that the more media to which a person is exposed, the more that person believes the life portrayed in the media is “real life” (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1994). That is to say, the slimming information and messages that appear in the media might lead people to believe the slim form is both realistic and ideal. As a result, body dissatisfaction and body shame will occur because of actual–ideal self discrepancy (Harrison, 2001) and/or self-attribution of responsibility (Crandall et al., 2001). Thus:

•	H5: Media exposure to slimming information will be positively associated with body dissatisfaction in Hong Kong young female adults.

Peer conversation about slimming

Researchers have found that, in adolescents, friends’ body image concerns and eating behaviors predict their own concerns and behaviors (Paxton, Schutz, Wertheim, & Muir, 1999). Indeed, premising on their finding that their participants reported making more peer comparison than celebrity comparison in body figures, Wertheim, Paxton, Schutz, and Muir (1997) maintain that peers might impose even greater influence than the media on individuals’ body image conception. A recent study (Presnell, Bearman, & Stice, 2004) also suggests that perceived pressure from peers to be thin is more associated with increases in individuals’ body dissatisfaction over time than pressures to be thin from the media.

Researchers have confirmed that direct appearance- or weight-related peer teasing and criticism and negative comments increased the likelihood of developing a negative body image in children, adolescents, and adults (Cash, 1995; Cattarin & Thompson, 1994). More recent studies have suggested that body-related peer conversation might impose indirect peer pressures through social comparison, construction of appearance ideals, shared appearance norms, avoidance of social disapproval, peer modeling, social reinforcement, perceived peer likeability/ popularity, peer encouragement, and other peers’ verbalized concerns (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Lieberman, Gauvin, Bukowski, & White, 2001; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2003). Research in adolescent females in the West has shown body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, weight concerns and weight-loss behaviors were related to the amount of talking/discussion with peers about dieting as well as peer encouragement (Vincent & McCabe, 2000). Based on the existing research, the following is proposed:

•	H6: Body-related peer conversation will be positively associated with body dissatisfaction in Hong Kong young female adults.

Method

Participants

A total of 1264 female university students studying at the Chinese University of Hong Kong participated in the present study. The mean age was 20.16 years old (SD = 2.81) with the age ranging from 18 to 24 years old. The participants came from a diversity of backgrounds, majoring in arts, business, education, engineer, law, medical school, science, or social science. A total of 52% of participants indicated that they had no slimming experience, while 48% said that they had prior slimming experience. Among those who had slimming experience, 28.4% tried dieting on their own, 26.5% exercised, 21% acquired a gym membership, 8.8% tried medicine for external use, 4.9% used a diet with nutritionists’ guidance, 4.7% bought medicine from drugstores, 3.9% used natural herbal medicine, and 1.8% used medicine prescribed by doctors.

Procedures

Invitation letters were first sent to lecturers of different departments by the present author with a detailed explanation of the purpose and procedure of the study. Follow-up emails were sent 1 week later to inquire about the lecturers’ willingness to participate. Of the invited lecturers, 72% agreed to spare 15 minutes of their class time for the survey. A trained moderator was assigned to administer the survey. After arriving at the classroom the moderator first read the purpose and instructions of the study and then distributed the surveys. The moderator explained to the participants that the study was to survey Hong Kong youngsters’ opinions on slimming. Students were explicitly told that they would remain anonymous and all the data collected would be kept confidential. The surveys were usually conducted either at the beginning or the end of the class without the presence of the lecturers. The surveys took approximately 15 minutes to complete.

Measures

In the survey the participants were asked to indicate their response to the statements using 5-point Likert scales (e.g., 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree; 1 = never to 5 = always; or 1 = not at all to 5 = very much). Before the hierarchical multiple regression test was performed, all 30 items for the seven variables were subject to factor analysis and reliability tests. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin score was. 93, reflecting that the sample of the present study was adequate. The accepted criterion for significant factor loadings was. 40 in the study. Varimax rotation revealed seven factors that collectively accounted for 55.01% of the variance.

Thin-ideal internalization

Three items were used to examine how much the participants agreed with the following statements: (a) “I believe slim = smart,” (b) “I believe slim = good-looking,” and (c) “fat = dumb.” This factor accounted for 4.23% of the variance in the factor analysis. Factor loadings revealed that all three items in this measure had loadings ranging from. 53 to. 80. The Cronbach alpha of this subscale was. 76. The three items were then aggregated and averaged to form an overall score of thin-ideal internalization.

Thin aspiration

Five items tapped the participants’ degree of thin aspiratio; that is, their perceived importance of being thin. They were (a) “I hope I could have those celebrities’/models’ body figures who appear on the magazines/advertisements,” (b) “I believe I would be very happy if I had a good shape,” (c) “I believe I would have many admirers if I had a good figure,” (d) “I believe I would be a successful person if I had a good figure,” and (e) “It is very important to have a good body figure.” This factor accounted for 4.75% of the variance in the factor analysis. Factor loadings revealed that all five items in this measure had loadings ranging from. 46 to. 77. The Cronbach alpha of this subscale was. 82. The five items were then aggregated and averaged to form an overall score of perceived importance of being thin.

Body consciousness

Two items were developed to investigate how conscious the participants were of their body figures. The statements were as follows: (a) “I am very conscious of my weight,” and (b) “I’m very conscious of my body figure.” This factor accounted for 3.70% of the variance in the factor analysis. Factor loadings revealed that the two items in this measure had loadings of. 77 and. 80. The Cronbach alpha of this subscale was. 70. The two items were then aggregated and averaged to form an overall score of body consciousness.

Anti-fat affectivity

Participants were asked to indicate how much they agreed with the following statements: (a) “I hate being fat,” (b) “If people say I’m fat, I would be very upset,” (c) “If people comment that I’m fat, I would feel very happy” (reversed item), and (d) “If people say I’m fat, I would feel very depressed.” This factor accounted for 10.15% of the variance in the factor analysis. Factor loadings revealed that all four items in this measure had loadings ranging from. 55 to. 72. The Cronbach alpha of this subscale was. 85. The four items were then aggregated and averaged to form an overall score of anti-fat affectivity.

Media exposure to slimming information

Participants were asked to indicate how often they came across slimming information from each of the following sources: (a) TV programs, (b) radio, (c) the Internet, (d) advertisements, (e) magazines, and (f) books. To measure this variable, the idea of “media mix” was adopted (Roberts, 2000) to measure a “combined” effect of the different media. This factor accounted for 18.25% of the variance in the factor analysis. Factor loadings revealed that all six items in this measure had loadings ranging from. 47 to. 83. The Cronbach alpha of this subscale was. 76. The six items were then aggregated and averaged to form an overall score of media exposure to slimming information.

Peer conversation

Three items were developed to examine how often people engage in slimming-related conversations with their friends. The statements were as follows: (a) “Do you exchange information with your friends on losing weight/trimming figure in your conversation?” (b) “Do you obtain information about losing weight/trimming figure from your friends?” and (c) “Do you or your friends suggest to lose weight/trim figures together in your conversation?” This factor accounted for 5.66% of the variance in the factor analysis. Factor loadings revealed that all three items in this measure had loadings ranging from. 59 to. 79. The Cronbach alpha of this subscale was. 77. The three items were then aggregated and averaged to form an overall score of peer conversation.

Degree of body dissatisfaction

Six items were developed to examine how satisfied the participants were with their body figures. The six items were as follows: (a) “I am very satisfied with my weight” (reversed item), (b) “I think I weigh more than I should,” (c) “I am very satisfied with my body figure” (reversed item), (d) “I am proud of my body figure” (reversed item), (e) “I need to lose some weight,” and (f) “My body figure is a headache to me.” This factor accounted for 8.25% of the variance in the factor analysis. Factor loadings revealed that all three items in this measure had loadings ranging from. 55 to. 72. The Cronbach alpha of this subscale was. 87. The three items were then aggregated and averaged to form an overall score of degree of body dissatisfaction.

Results

To examine the predictability of thin-ideal internalization, perceived importance of being fat, body consciousness, anti-fat affectivity, media exposure to slimming information, and peer conversation as predictors for degree of body dissatisfaction, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted by entering the controlled variables of university year and age in Model 1 and the six predictors in Model 2. A total of 90 cases were deleted listwise due to missing data on some items in the questionnaire. The remaining 1174 complete cases were all included in the regression analysis (see Table 1 for the results of the hierarchical multiple regressions, with university year and age being controlled). The results further confirmed that university year and age were unrelated to the six predictors and had a non-significant impact on the criterion variable, R ²= .00, F(2, 1172) = 1.29, ns. Model 2 captured the predictive power of the combination of the six predictors. The model showed significant results, R ²= .27, F(8, 1166) = 52.79, p < .01.

Table 1 Hierarchical multiple regression of the six predictors of body dissatisfaction

Variable	β	t
Control variables
University year	−.01	.43
Age	−.05	1.57
R ^2	.00
Predictors
Peer conversation	.31	7.82*
Body consciousness	.30	7.18*
Thin-ideal internalization	.28	6.06*
Thin aspiration	.25	5.32*
Anti-fat affectivity	.21	4.04*
Media exposure to slimming information	.05	1.65
R ^2	.27
Adjusted R ^2	.26
F	52.79*
N = 1174. *p < .01.

The above multiple regressions showed that, among the six predictors, five predicted a significant degree of body dissatisfaction. They were thin-ideal internalization (ß = .28, p < .01), thin aspiration (ß = .25, p < .01), body consciousness (ß = .30, p < .01), anti-fat affectivity (ß = .21, p < .01), and peer conversation (ß = .31, p < .01). Interestingly, media exposure to slimming information was found to be non-significant, ß = .05, ns. Taken together, hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 were supported, whereas hypothesis 5 was rejected.

Discussion

Consistent with what the existing Western literature has found, the present study confirms that body consciousness, thin-ideal internalization, thin aspiration, and anti-fat affectivity are important individual factors that predict body dissatisfaction in Chinese female young adults. The present study adds to the body of research indicating that contextual and individual factors are associated with body dissatisfaction. Among all the factors examined, the contextual factor—namely, peer conversation—constitutes the most predictive power of body dissatisfaction.

Existing literature examining peer influence on body image focuses mainly on the effects of peer teasing and direct peer comparisons in body size and shape on body image (Creedon, Ray, & Harkins, 2009; Sinton & Birch, 2006). Jones and Crawford (2006) postulated that “peers perpetuate messages regarding appearance in the form of conversations about beauty and dieting, pressure for conformity, teasing and negative evaluation, and peer rejection” (p. 113). Among all the forms of peer influence, the role of conversations about slimming has been largely neglected in empirical literature. The association between body dissatisfaction and peer conversation about slimming found in the present study thus indicates that future investigation of the subtle impact of peer conversation is warranted. Several reasons might explain why peer conversations about slimming are a strong predictor of body dissatisfaction in young female adults in Hong Kong.

First, interpersonal communication in the form of peer conversations might facilitate social comparisons, social learning and reinforcement, peer modeling, cultivation of shared peer norms and values, and internalization of thin ideals (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Jones, Vigfusdottir, & Lee, 2004). While peers are always real, celebrities or models could sometimes appear “distant” or “unrealistic” to female individuals. Wertheim and his associates (1997) found that individuals tend to make comparisons or references with those who are close or similar to them.

Second, peers’ conversation and discussion about slimming information/interest, beauty, or dieting may cultivate a sense of mutual support and encouragement among individuals in social circles to continue to sustain their slimming desire and activities. In contrast, this kind of mutual rapport is almost impossible to obtain through media consumption.

Third, gender association theory (Bem, 1981) points out that in the development of self-worth in women, physical attractiveness constitutes a major factor in relating oneself with others. Thus women may feel pressure from peers to conform to the ideals upheld within their peer circles. Studies have evidenced that peer acceptance is particularly important in providing validation and support for healthy psychological growth in women (Paxton et al., 1999).

In addition, the pressure to follow the norm or behavior of the social circle might be particularly strong in the collectivistic Chinese culture, whereby individuals are expected to conform to larger social norms (Hofstede, 1980). Another possibility is that the collectivistic cultural characteristics in Chinese women make them more receptive to ideas and behaviors that are fostered through interpersonal communication than other non-interpersonal forms of communication (Lee, 2008). Further studies could examine the relationships between cultural orientation and perceived social pressure as well as vulnerability to interpersonal influence in slimming. Confirmation of the relationships will imply that (a) body image carries social meanings in Hong Kong young female adults and (b) culture plays a significant role in facilitating interpersonal influence in the body image development.

The present study also investigated media exposure to slimming information as opposed to media exposure to body-ideal imagery. Existing literature (e.g., Tiggemann, 2003) has confirmed that television and magazine exposure to thin imagery leads to thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating. The present study found that slimming information in the media, in contrast, does not associate with individuals’ body image. One reason could be that the visual imageries of celebrities’ and models’ body figures offer direct comparison references or absolute standards that often result in a wide gap between the actual and ideal selves, leading to body dissatisfaction with one's own body. On the other hand, slimming information provides weight-loss methods that might give hope or appear to individuals that a slim figure is attainable. This sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) might neutralize the potential negative impact of the media on body image.

All in all, the finding of the current study suggests that while some form of media messages (e.g., visual) extolling the thin ideal may have negative impacts on the audience, not every form of them leads to body dissatisfaction. Thus further investigation is needed to examine the roles of different forms (e.g., visual vs textual) and different kinds (e.g., television vs movie vs the Internet) of media in the development of body image.

The present study also confirms that body consciousness and thin-ideal internalization are the second and third top individual factors associated with body dissatisfaction respectively. The results of the present study suggest that body-consciousness and thin-ideal internalization prevalent in the Western culture are now also risk factors for body dissatisfaction in Hong Kong young female adults.

Taken together, this study suggests that the “thin” culture is now prevalent among young female adults in Hong Kong. This trend is alarming, because it implies that body image disturbance has become an issue widely faced by the young female populations in Hong Kong. The present study indicates that peer influence, in the form of peer conversation, is central to the understanding of body dissatisfaction.

Theoretical implications

The findings derived in the present study underline the limits of single-variable explanations (such as the traditional approach of focusing on individual/attitudinal factors to explain/predict body dissatisfaction) for informing factors that are associated with body image development. As shown in the present study, Hong Kong college women's degree of body dissatisfaction is predicted by a chain of multiple variables, including both the contextual and individual factors.

While existing research has examined peer influence in the form of direct teasing and criticism, the research is less informative about the role of indirect peer influence such as peer conversation. As Jones and her associates (2004) have claimed, “conversations with friends provide the everyday context for attending to, constructing, and interpreting information relevant to body concerns” (p. 324). As such, overlooking this potentially important factor might result in failing to provide a more comprehensive perspective in understanding the mechanisms whereby peers impose influence on individuals’ body image.

The empirical result of the present study suggests that peer conversation on body-related topics predicts body dissatisfaction. This indicates a need for further investigation into the mechanisms of how the subtle influence takes place. Specifically, further efforts are required to examine (a) whether and how peer conversation fosters social comparison in body figures, thin ideal transmission or slimming-behavior learning; and (b) whether and how conversations with other social agents (such as parents or siblings) have similar effects.

The present study also explores a possible new dimension of media effects—namely, media exposure to slimming information (as opposed to exposure to thin imagery). Although this new variable was found to be non-significant in predicting body dissatisfaction, this variable points to the need for further study on the different roles played by media-related visual imagery and textual information in body image development. Confirmation of a difference may indicate that (a) certain media forms of body-related messages are more harmful than others in cultivating thin-ideal internalization or (b) individuals are more susceptible to body-related messages conveyed via the peripheral route than the central route to persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981).

While thin-ideal internalization, body consciousness, thin aspiration, and anti-fat affectivity have been investigated separately in existing studies, no research so far has compared their strength of association with body dissatisfaction. By examining these factors simultaneously, the present study shows the different magnitudes of these individual factors in predicting degree of body dissatisfaction. Because this study takes into account the weights of different variables, it might be arguably more suitable and comprehensive for identifying the more influential variables in the formation process of body dissatisfaction.

Practical implications

While prevention programs have addressed the negative impacts of peer teasing and bullying on body image, the subtle undercurrent of the effects of casual peer conversation on body-related topics has been largely ignored. Taken together, the results highlight the need for negative body image prevention at the level of the peer group. Greater attention should be given to educating young female adults to understand the ways in which peers serve to construct/ reinforce certain thin ideals and create pressure to be thin that could undermine body satisfaction. These programs should inform young female adults about subtle peer influences on individuals’ perceptions concerning weight and body figures, body consciousness, and thin-ideal internalization.

At the same time, efforts should be made to educate young female adults about positive body image processing (Botta, 1999). This involves learning the unrealistic and unhealthy thin ideals and a critical approach to the prevalent thin culture, as well as developing resistance to conforming to the “thin” culture and the possible negative influences. Programs should focus on re-gearing individuals from being body-conscious to being health-conscious. Healthy living that stresses “balanced diets,” “healthy lifestyle,” and “self-acceptance” should be introduced and reinforced.

Because peers are evidenced as powerful socializing agents, practitioners are advised to organize peer activities in which young female adults learn how to give positive feedback and encouragement to their friends concerning body-related topics. Previous research has found that friends’ social support and acceptance may help individuals feel more positively about their bodies by fostering resilience (Stice & Shaw, 2002). In other words, practitioners should make better use of peers to bolster positive body image development as well as to foster positive self-worth and self-esteem (Ata, Ludden, & Lally, 2007).

Cautions and Suggestions

As with any study, the methods in the present study impose limits on the generalizability of the results, each of which suggests areas of future inquiry. First, young adults are different in many ways from children, adolescents, or mature adults in other age groups. One should be cautious in generalizing the findings of the current study to other age groups or other cultural groups until these findings are replicated.

Second, it is possible that the gender of peers may interact with peer conversations to affect individuals’ body image development (Ricciardelli, McCabe, & Banfield, 2000). Future studies should investigate whether the effects of same-sex peer conversations differ from those of opposite-sex peer conversations.

Third, media were treated as conceptually unitary in the present study. It is possible that different media exert effects on individuals’ body image conceptions through different paths (Dimmick & Rothenbuhler, 1984). This might explain why a non-significant association was found between media exposure to slimming information and body dissatisfaction in the present study. The construction of composite measures of media exposure might result in a counteracting effect (Stice & Shaw, 1994). In addition, the questions in the survey were structured in a way that required participants to be first aware of the media exposure and then be able to recall it. The difficulty of recall might be another reason that explained the non-significance of the variable. Additional use of other media exposure measurements (e.g., Fishbein & Hornik, 2008) could be employed to ensure media exposure is adequately measured. Moreover, the influence of new media types such as music videos or video games (Scharrer, 2001; Tiggemann, 2005) on young adults’ body image could also be investigated.

Fourth, the causal directions of the associations found in this study need to be interpreted with great caution. Although the results of the hierarchical multiple regression confirm the hypothesized relationships and flow of directions, alternative explanations may be plausible. For instance, some may argue that those who are dissatisfied with their body figures are more likely to become more conscious of their bodies or talk to their friends more about body-related topics. The cross-sectional nature of this study imposes a limitation in that it precludes interpretations related to causality. For this, longitudinal studies that trace peer influences over time will give more confidence to researchers about causal directions.

Finally, all variables were measured on self-report. The reliance on self-reported measures may run the risk of social desirability and subjective bias effects. Future study should include objective assessments of these variables such as observations or other-reported measures (e.g., from peers or family members) for triangulation.