Assessment of the Constraints and Challenges in Avocado (Persea Americana Mill.) Production and Marketing in Southern Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

The avocado fruit is very popular and highly cultivated in many countries, including Ethiopia, for its multiple benefits. The purpose of this study was to examine the major constraints and challenges faced by smallholder farmers in avocado production and marketing in southern Ethiopia. The data were collected from 295 avocado farmers and 30 local traders using various data collection tools. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the chi-square test. The findings from the present study revealed that the proportion of men farmers who produce local avocados was significantly higher than that of women farmers (χ2 = 153.79, df = 1, p < 0.001). On the other hand, women dominated the local markets, accounting for 73.3% of the local avocado traders who were interviewed. In addition, our research has demonstrated that smallholder farmers encounter major difficulties and challenges when growing avocados, including poor fruit retention, inadequate knowledge on agronomic practices, issues with diseases, and pests. Approximately 20.4% of farmers were able to solve at least one of the documented challenges in this study. As a result, it is critical that these concerns be addressed at the national, regional, district, and neighborhood levels to increase the standard of living for Ethiopian farmers who grow this essential crop.

KEYWORDS:

• Avocado
• challenges
• fungal symbionts
• marketing
• Pests
• Planting material

Introduction

Avocado is a diploid (2n = 24) basal angiosperm of the Lauraceae family, which includes flowering plants in the order Laurales (Hardham, 2005). It occurs in three landraces with possibly independent cultivation origins that reflect their current distribution: the Mexican [Persea americana var. drymifolia (Schect. &Cham.)], Guatemalan [P. americana var. guatemalensis Wms.], and West Indian [P. americana var. americana Mill.] varieties (Schaffer et al., 2013). These three ecological races are distinguishable based on morphological, horticultural, and physiological traits (Nakasone and Paul, 2004). Archeological evidence shows that avocado was first consumed by humans in Tehuacán, Puebla (Mexico), about 12,000 years ago (Kelly, 2019; Yahia and Woolf, 2011). Then, it dispersed to the southeastern part of the United States, to the Antilles, and to a large part of South America: Colombia, Venezuela, Las Guyana, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chile (Yahia and Woolf, 2011). Avocado was introduced to South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century and to the Ottoman Empire in 1908 (Schaffer et al., 2013). However, it was initially introduced to Ethiopia in 1938 by private orchardists in Hirna (the eastern highlands of Ethiopia) and Wondo-genet (the Sidama region) (Etissa, 1999; Megerssa and Alemu, 2013; Shumeta, 2010), and thereafter its production extended throughout the country, including southern Ethiopia, such as Sidama, Wolayta, Gedeo, Gurage, Hadiya, and Kembata.

The avocado fruit has become highly popular and is widely cultivated in numerous countries due to its numerous nutritional, health, medicinal, and socioeconomic benefits. Research by Dreher and Davenport (2013) indicated that avocado oil comprises 71% monounsaturated fatty acids, 13% polyunsaturated fatty acids, and 16% saturated fatty acids. Avocado fruit also contains a variety of vitamins, including 26% of the daily value (DV) of Vitamin K, 20% of the DV of Folate, 17% of the DV of Vitamin C, 14% of the DV of Vitamin B5, 13% of the DV of Vitamin B6, and 10% of the DV of Vitamin E per 100 grams (Dreher and Davenport, 2013; Flores et al., 2019). In addition to their nutritional value, avocados are recognized for their health benefits, particularly due to the presence of compounds in the lipid fraction, such as omega fatty acids, phytosterols, tocopherols, and squalene (dos Santos et al., 2013). The mashed pulp of avocado fruits can be used directly as a soothing treatment for the skin and to protect against sunburns (Dabas et al., 2013). The 50% less fat and 35% lower calorie content of West Indian and Guatemalan-West Indian cultivars grown in Florida are being marketed as heart-healthy and reduced-energy alternatives to the Hass’ avocado (Lyle, 2006).

The production of avocados by small-scale farmers helps to reduce rural poverty and promotes the development of the rural economy by increasing the wealth of growers and improving their quality of life (Bhore et al., 2021). The growth of the processing industry has also increased the economic value of avocados, for instance, by producing avocado cosmetics and fruit oil (Hakizimana and May, 2011). Most of this oil is utilized in the cosmetic industry, where it is prized for its high vitamin E content and cream properties but is considered marginal for consumption (Eyres et al., 2001). Moreover, processed avocado products include dehydrated pulp, frozen pulp, vacuum-packed pulp, and refrigerated, ready-to-eat guacamole. The market for all of these products appears to be growing (FAO Report, 2010).

In spite of the importance of the avocado in the world economy, its producers have been facing challenges in supplying quality fruits to world markets. In Africa, smallholder farmers have been facing several production and marketing constraints, such as a lack of markets, poor quality of produce, high transaction costs (Mashinda et al., 2011; Mutayoba and Ngaruko, 2018), inadequate farmer skills and knowledge of production, and prevalence of pests and diseases (Kiros, 2008). As a result, many postharvest losses of fruit result from these constraints, and smallholder farmers become less competitive in the mainstream high-value markets (Juma et al., 2019). Postharvest losses of fruits can range in size from 5%–35% in industrialized nations and 20–50% in poor nations (Hailu and Derbew, 2015). Food losses and huge economic losses result from this postharvest loss (Gross et al., 2000). The study conducted by Abebe et al. (2022) showed that the average postharvest losses from the production of all avocado fruits in Ethiopia were 24% of the total amount produced.

Ethiopia has favorable agroecological conditions to grow avocado crops for smallholder farmers or producers. Despite suitable agroecological conditions for avocado cultivation, earlier research revealed that avocado production and the value chain were limited by many constraints and challenges. According to the findings of a study conducted by Garedew and Tsegaye (2011) in Mana districts, Jimma zone, avocado production is hampered by constraints such as fruit degeneration, disease concerns, and inadequate agronomic techniques. Abebe et al. (2022) discovered that a large amount of avocado fruit output was lost due to a lack of storage facilities to manage the temperature of developed fruits, among other variables. However, few studies have been conducted on small-scale avocado production and postharvest handling constraints in southern Ethiopia. Only one report is available on avocado production constraints in the country’s south, particularly in three districts of the Sidama region (Dalle, Bona Zuria, and Bensa) (Biazin et al., 2016). This and other studies conducted previously have not identified the major constraints and challenges the farmers faced, the types of pests and diseases that frequently affect avocados or the ways the farmers mitigated such challenges. Thus, the present study was undertaken to examine the primary constraints and challenges faced by smallholder farmers in avocado fruit production and marketing in southern Ethiopia. The findings from this study provided insightful information on avocado production and the challenges farmers face, and they may awaken Ethiopia’s government or avocado horticultural sectors to take appropriate actions for the challenges.

Materials and Methods

The Study Areas

The study was conducted in the three avocado-producing areas of southern Ethiopia, such as Sidama, Gedeo, and Wolayta (Figure 1). The Sidama region is located between latitudes 6°14’54’‘and 7°15’10”‘north and longitudes 37°10’05’‘and 39°15’01’‘ east. Wondo-genet, Dalle, Bensa, and Dara districts were chosen for this study from the region’s 36 administrative districts. The Gedeo zone is located between 5° and 7° north latitudes and 38° and 40° east longitudes. Dilla Zuria and Wonago districts were included in this study among the zone’s eight avocado-producing districts. Wolayta is situated between the latitudes of 6°51’‘and 7°35’‘north and the longitudes of 37°46’‘and 38°1’” east. The current study covered the Boloso Sore and Damote Gale districts from this zone, as well as two neighborhoods from each district. The study areas were purposefully selected based on their production potential and long history of avocado farming. The study locations are situated at an elevation of 1100–2993 m above sea level. The typical annual temperature is 15–26°C, and the average annual rainfall is 1200–1800 mL (Biazin et al., 2016; W/Yohannes et al., 2014).

Figure 1. Map showing the study sites.

Sampling Procedures and Sample Size

Multistage sampling procedures were used to determine the sampling units in this study. The three sites (Sidama, Gedeo, and Wolayta) were purposefully sampled based on their avocado production potential. Four districts (Wondo-genet, Dalle, Bensa, and Dara) were selected from the Sidama region. Two districts per Gedeo and Wolayta zones were selected. In each district, two neighborhoods were selected. The selection of the districts and neighborhoods was done in consultation with the zone, district and neighborhood agricultural officers, and extension experts based on the avocado production records. Furthermore, regional agricultural bureaus, zones, or district’s horticulture departments were used to obtain the total number of smallholder farmers (N = 7996) from each neighborhood (Table 1). The entire sample size (n = 295) was then estimated from all smallholder farmers using Yamane’s (1967) simplified formula. Then, the sample size required to represent the true population was calculated using a 94% confidence level and a 6% precision level.

(1) $\mathrm{n}=\frac{\mathrm{N}}{1+\mathrm{N}{\left(\mathrm{e}\right)}^2},$(1)

Table 1. Information on study sites, total number of farmers (N), entire sample size (n), and traders included from each site.

Regions	Zones	Districts	Neighborhoods	No. of farmers in each neighborhood (N)			Sample size (n)			No. of the traders
				M	F	ST	M	F	ST	M	F	T
Sidama		Wondo-genet	Aruma	391	25	416	14	1	15	0	5	5
			Wosha	415	11	426	14	1*	15
		Dalle	Ajawa	609	6	615	21	1*	22	1	4	5
			Dagiya	865	8	873	31	1*	32
		Bensa	Dembi	460	29	489	17	1	18	1	4	5
			Hache	377	25	402	14	1	15
		Dara	Aleme-korocha	137	7	144	4	1*	5	2	3	5
			Setamo	125	4	129	4	1*	5
South	Gedeo	Dilla Zuria	Cicu	725	205	930	27	8	35	1	2	3
			Sisota	425	75	500	16	3	19
		Wonago	Tumata-chirecha	1011	195	1206	37	7	44	1	1	2
			Tokicha	777	148	925	29	5	34
	Wolayta	Boloso-sore	Matala- hembecho	216	43	259	8	2	10	1	2	3
			Tiyo- hembecho	158	39	197	6	1	7
		Damote-gale	Ayde-damote	179	122	301	7	5	12	1	1	2
			Taba	138	46	184	5	2	7
Total	2	8		7008	988	7996	254	41	295	8	22	30

F: Female; M: Male; ST: subtotal; N is the total number of avocado producers in each neighborhood or site; n is the number of respondent farmers included from each neighborhood; * = Using Yamane’s (1967) formula, the sample size for females was zero, but the researcher adjusted to include the female respondents from that neighborhood.

where n is the number of sample sizes (respondents), N is the total number of avocado farmers in neighborhoods, and e is the level of precision. In addition, 10% was added to the sample size to compensate for farmers whom the researcher was unable to contact (Yamane, 1967). Consequently, the total sample size was 295. Finally, these sample sizes were selected based on their involvement in avocado cultivation for at least 10 years and their willingness to participate in this study. In addition, 30 local avocado traders were included as respondents for this study (Table 1).

Data Collection Tools

A cross-sectional study design was used for this investigation. The primary data were collected through participatory research appraisal tools and techniques such as semi-structured interviews, field observation, market surveys, focused group discussions, and key informants’ discussions about sex, education, age, avocado farming experience, sources of planting materials, access to extension services, major constraints and challenges they faced in the production of avocado, fungal symbionts, and pests affecting avocado, while the secondary data were collected from published and unpublished documents, the internet, journals, and reports available in the study areas.

To assess the major constraints and challenges that hinder avocado production, fourteen focused group discussions (one discussion per neighborhood) were conducted in the selected neighborhood, involving a total of 99 farmers (4–8 members) from local and avocado growers’ network leaders and community elders. Furthermore, a total of 32 key informants (2 from each neighborhood) were selected among respondents to cross-check and clarify contradictory ideas on the fungal symbionts and pests affecting avocado from individual interviews and group discussions with farmers throughout the tested districts. Researchers used this chance to learn from farmers and collect data on the challenges they faced while also advising them.

Finally, market surveys were conducted in six local markets (Yirgalem, Wondo-genet, Bensa Daye, Dara Kebado, Dilla, and Wolayta Sodo towns) to examine gender differences and consumer demand for avocados in domestic market places. To do this, 30 local traders (5 from each market) were chosen at random and interviewed about price, market access, the challenges they confront, and ways of mitigating the problems.

Data Analysis

The data collected from respondents were coded and structured in Microsoft Excel and then analyzed through descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, and means) to generate summaries and tables using SPSS version 20. The Pearson correlation test was used to determine the relationships between farmers’ age and their farming experience using SPSS version 20. The sex distributions of the respondents and the price variations of avocado fruit in local markets were tested using the chi-squared (χ2) goodness-of-fit test in Minitab version 15.1. The frequency of occurrences of a given type of challenge among the respondents was counted, and the percentage of the specific challenges that farmers have faced was calculated and summarized in the table.

Results and Discussion

Characteristics of Respondents

In the study areas, young, adult, and older age groups have been involved in avocado production practices. Most (86%) of the respondent farmers were males, while a significantly lower proportion (14%) were females (χ2 = 153.79, df = 1, p < 0.001) (Table 2). In all study sites, the ages of respondent farmers ranged from 30–85 years; about 84.7% of respondent farmers were within the range of working age (30–60 years old), whereas 15.3% of them were older (>60 years old). The mean age of the farmers was about 50 years. The avocado farming experience of farmers ranged from 10–60 years. Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) indicated that the farmers’ age and the number of local avocados grown by them were significantly and positively correlated (r = 0.572, p < 0.01), indicating farmers’ experiences of avocado growing increased with their ages. According to Burton (2006), age is an indication of the level of experience of farmers, which can have direct implications for tree management.

Table 2. Sociodemographic characteristics of respondent farmers in Sidama, Gedeo, and Wolayta.

Characteristics	Number of respondents from each ethnic group*
	Sidama	Gedeo	Wolayta	Sum
Education level
Nonformal education	21(7.1%)	42 (14.2%)	18 (6.1%)	81 (27.5%)
Primary school (1–8)	79 (26.8%)	62 (21.0%)	10 (3.4%)	151 (51.2%)
Secondary school (9–10)	19 (6.4%)	22 (7.5%)	7 (2.4%)	48 (16.3%)
Certificate and above	8 (2.7%)	6 (2.0%)	1 (0.3%)	15 (5%)
Sex category
Males	119 (40.3%)	109 (36.9%)	26 (8.8%)	254 (86%)
Females	8 (2.7%)	23 (7.8%)	10 (3.4%)	41 (14%)
Age category
Young (≤40 years)	35 (11.9%)	39 (13.2%)	7 (2.4%)	81 (27.5%)
Adult (41–60)	78 (26.4%)	66 (22.4%)	25 (8.5%)	169 (57.3%)
Old (>60 years)	14 (4.7%)	27 (9.2%)	4 (1.4%)	45 (15.3%)
Avocado farming experience (years)
10–30	100 (78.7%)	95 (72.5%)	28 (77.8%)	223 (75.6%)
31–60	27 (21.3)	36(27.5%)	8(22.2%)	71 (24.4)

*Numbers in parentheses are the percentage of respondents.

The majority of farmers (72.5%) had completed one form of formal education or another, while the remaining 27.5% had no formal education at all. This indicates that more than half of the farmers had a primary-level education to understand basic farming practices that can positively affect the adoption of agricultural technologies (Yemataw et al., 2017). Another study on the adoption of modern beehive technologies by smallholder farmers confirmed that there was a positive correlation between education level and the adoption of technologies (Yehuala et al., 2013).

Our findings revealed that, when compared to women, a lot of men (86%) were involved in the avocado farming system in the study areas. Conversely, the local business of avocado was significantly dominated by women (χ2 = 6.53, df = 1, p < 0.05), who accounted for 73.3% of the interviewed traders. The local avocado vendors who were interviewed ranged in age from 25–40. This indicated that the majority of local traders were youngsters. The high percentage of women trading locally in avocados is consistent with Malekela’s (2022) finding that women made up 76% of local traders in Njombe Town, Tanzania. Similarly, Johnny et al. (2019) observed that in Kenya, the women traders appeared to dominate the avocado retailing trade in Kandara and Marani, especially in nearby markets, because they exhibited greater patience than men when sitting and waiting for customers.

Types of Avocados Grown and Sources of Planting Material

Our findings revealed that all avocado growers who participated in this study owned three to a hundred local avocado trees. However, nearly 50% of the respondent farmers owned “Hass” varieties; they obtained avocado seedlings from different sources. About 98.3% of the farmers reported that they got local avocado seeds free of charge from friends, neighbors, or relatives, whereas the remaining farmers had purchased plants from markets, friends, or neighbors. The smallholder farmers reported that they got the seedlings of commercial varieties mainly from avocado seedling production centers (local nurseries), individual farmers, and farming groups by purchasing. The planting materials of commercial varieties were also provided to farmers by agricultural research centers (Melkassa and Wondogenet agricultural research centers), non-governmental institutions, and district agriculture offices. This finding is consistent with Juma et al. (2019).

Major Constraints and Challenges in Avocado Production

The current study has identified and documented 10 major constraints and challenges that avocado farmers or traders have faced in southern Ethiopia, such as poor fruit retention, weak agronomic practices, diseases and pests, longevity to bear fruits or failure to bear fruits at all, limited access to improved varieties, lack of an organized market, insufficient extension services, small land sizes, climate change, drought, and low soil fertility (Table 3). Juma et al. (2019) reported similar study findings in Tanzania. The farmers reported that when avocados begin to bloom, all trees initially produce flowers, but after a few months, many of these flowers and pea-sized fruits will fall off, particularly during the summer season. Diseases and pests, which can cause pre- and postharvest losses of avocado fruit, were listed by 85% of the respondents as the third major issue affecting avocado production in the study areas. On average, 72% of the respondents reported that longevity to bear fruits and failure to bear fruit at all are other main challenges avocado growers have faced in avocado production. As a result, they cut down fruit trees and use the wood for other things, such as firewood and lumber. A genetic erosion of the local avocado crop may result from this. This shows that farmers may not have been fully aware of the reproduction capacity of the avocado tree. According to studies, avocado trees naturally release their immature fruit to relieve themselves of having too much fruit (Schaffer et al., 2013; Yahia and Woolf, 2011). Additionally, the fruit set, or early fruit drop period, is the most critical stage of ovary (fruit) development from a developmental point of view (Hormaza, 2014; Lovatt, 1990; Schaffer et al., 2013). As a result, it is advised that raising awareness about the reproductive nature of avocado through concerned bodies will encourage local avocado growers to adequately maintain its germplasm.

Table 3. The challenges faced by smallholder avocado farmers in southern Ethiopia.

Major factors affecting avocado production	Percentage of informants reporting each factor*
	Sidama (n = 79)	Gedeo (n = 100)	Wolayta (n = 17)	Mean
Poor fruit retention (falling of fruit before maturity)	100	100	100	100
Weak agronomic practices and postharvest losses	97.5	98.7	99.3	98.5
Diseases and pests	81	91	82.4	85
Failure to bear fruit at all	74.7	72	70.6	72
Limited access to improved varieties	68.1	68	76.5	71
Lack of an organized market	51.9	76	52.9	60
Limited extension services	64.6	52	58.8	58
Small farm size	62	35	47.1	48
Climate change and drought	12.7	22	29.4	21
Low soil fertility	6.3	12	23.5	14

*The numbers in parentheses are the percentage of respondents; n is the total number of farmers interviewed at each site.

Inadequate agronomic techniques and postharvest losses were recognized as the second major challenge in avocado production by 98.5% of smallholder avocado growers. Avocado fruit loss occurs mainly during fruit harvest, cleaning, packaging, and transportation (Anjichi et al., 2006). Studies indicated that fruit cannot be harvested during wet weather conditions because the presence of water droplets on the fruit surface can favor the incidence of postharvest diseases during distribution and storage (Darvas, 1982). On the other hand, limited access to planting materials, particularly improved avocado varieties, also affects the productivity of avocado farmers. The growers got avocado seedlings from different sources. Approximately 98.3% of the farmers reported that they got local avocado seeds free of charge from friends, neighbors, or relatives, whereas the remaining farmers had purchased plants from markets, friends, or neighbors. However, nearly 71% of respondents noted that there was limited access to improved avocado varieties in the study areas (Table 3). As a result, growers still had to wait seven to ten years for seedling avocado trees to bear fruit. Similar results were reported by Wasilwa et al. (2017) in Kenya, Dube et al. (2018), and Juma et al. (2019) in Tanzania.

Furthermore, only a small number of extension support services and a lack of an organized market were cited as the primary obstacles to producing avocados by nearly 60% of the farmers. Lack of extension assistance is cited by Shumeta (2010) as one of Ethiopia’s main production barriers for avocados. The small size of the farm was cited as a challenge in the study areas by 48% of the farmers interviewed. One of the most densely populated regions in southern Ethiopia is Sidama, Gedeo, and Wolayta (Central Statistical Agency, 2007; Cochrane and Gecho, 2018). Many avocado growers are small-scale farmers and thus use a mixed agroforestry cropping system. According to Lowder et al. (2016), most of the world’s farmers are also smallholders with farms less than two hectares in size. However, these farmers were some of the poorest and had low productivity to increase their incomes and escape poverty due to their small farm size.

Finally, 14%–21% of the farmers interviewed mentioned additional factors such as avocado productivity challenges and constraints, such as climate change, drought, and low soil fertility. Although Ethiopia’s climate is favorable for growing avocados, farmers have faced difficulties due to prolonged drought, which is also responsible for the low productivity. Young avocado trees need all the nutrients and water they need to maintain their fast growth rhythm. According to farmers, too much or heavy rainfall and temperatures are not good for avocados. Prolonged periods of heavy rainfall (greater than 1800 mm) can lead to reduced tree vigor by limiting soil aeration. Avocado trees, in particular, are susceptible to root damage when the soil remains waterlogged for extended periods, as oxygen in the soil becomes scarce (Wolstenholme, 2013). According to a study led by Zaro et al. (2014), too much rainfall during the flowering period of avocados can negatively impact pollinator activity and pollen quality, ultimately hindering fruit development. In addition, ice or frost was mentioned as one of the main challenges that affected avocado trees, causing flowers and fruits to fall off and leaves to dry out. As a general rule, small farmers noted that climate change such as heavy rainfall, flooding, temperature, etc., particularly drought, can cause the wilting of avocado leaves and flowers, reduce the fruit, and finally cause the fruit to drop before maturity, which leads to a reduced crop yield. Avocados are cultivated in diverse temperature ranges across the world. However, extreme heat is detrimental to their growth, especially for the Mexican and Guatemalan varieties that typically thrive in cool to warm, mesic highland settings. Excessive heat during critical stages like pollination and fruit set can have a negative impact (Wolstenholme, 2013). According to Mestawet et al. (2022), water shortages were reported as the main limiting factor for successful production of avocado by all the participants in the Hadiya Zone, southern Ethiopia. This can lead to a significant reduction in yield and negatively impact productivity. Similarly, the finding by Ward and Masters (2007) highlighted that the changes in climatic conditions are also predicted to profoundly influence population dynamics and the status of agricultural insect pests and disease development.

Furthermore, 14% of farmers identified low soil fertility as one of the issues limiting the study area’s ability to produce avocados. About 20.4% of farmers were able to solve at least one of the challenges mentioned in avocado growing. According to several studies, avocado trees grown in fine-textured soils are more likely to experience root hypoxia, which can harm plant water relations by reducing the root’s ability to absorb water due to root damage, reduced stomatal conductance, and decreased transpiration (Doupis et al., 2017; Sanclemente et al., 2014). In the near future, these factors will continue to pose serious difficulties for Ethiopia in competing with major regional, national, and global avocado producers. Therefore, addressing these challenges at the national, regional, district, and neighborhood levels is important to improve the livelihood of Ethiopian farmers growing this crop, given that most of the challenges and constraints also affect the value chain of other crops.

Fungal Symbionts and Other Pests Attack Avocado Fruit

Farmers reported a diversity of diseases and pests as the principal negative factors at avocado production sites. They did not know the names of the fungal symbionts that have attacked avocado production, but they clearly indicated the signs and symptoms of the diseases. All respondents (100%) at Gedeo sites reported an avocado disease that causes the fruit to drop before maturity, which locals called “Avocado cholera” because the disease aborts the fruit before maturity and reduces yield. Farmers related this disease to coffee berry disease, which causes a drop in young fruit, reduced yield, dead branches, and tree defects. They reported that the disease often breaks out in the rainy season. According to Gait ́an et al. (2015), coffee berry disease on green coffee fruit causes lesions that are dark brown, necrotic, and sunken, and the fruits eventually become mummified. Symptoms caused by this disease are typical of anthracnose (Serrato-Diaz et al., 2020). Thus, the reported fungal symbionts that attack avocado fruit in the Gedeo areas might be anthracnose.

Furthermore, respondents from Sidama areas noted avocado disease, which led to wilting, spotting, drying, fruit scabbing, and eventual tree death. They named this disease in the Sidama language “Michche” (sunburn) or “Bijaajo” (avocado scab) as shown in Figure 2. Farmers also complained that domestic or wild animals such as goats, cows, deer, monkeys, garden snails, spider mites, and other insects damaged avocado seedlings and fruits. Yahia and Woolf (2011) in Mexico, Juma et al. (2019) in Tanzania, and Mestawet et al. (2022) in Ethiopia all observed comparable findings. Another research report highlighted that 13% of avocado fruit losses in 2019 were attributable to insect infestations in South Africa (2022). According to different studies, the fungal diseases that predominantly limited avocado production and market-value chains were anthracnose and stem-end rot (Bowen et al., 2018), which account for perhaps 70% of all fruit losses (Munhuweyi et al., 2016). The study conducted by Kebede and Belay (2019) in and around Jimma revealed that Botryotinia was the most frequently affected pathogen (26.67%), followed by Colletotrichum (23.33%), and Aspergillus (10%), which contribute to the postharvest decay of avocado fruits and loss in quality of avocado. Anthracnose has been reported to affect avocado production and quality in Kenya (Aloo, 2005).

Figure 2. Avocado fruit scab (“Bijaajo,” sidama language). The fruit’s affected area is shown by a red color.

Marketing of Avocado Fruit

In recent years, avocados have emerged as the leading fruit traded in different markets in southern Ethiopia. Our result showed that the marketing of this fruit was mainly limited and focused on the local markets such as Daye, Dara Kebado, Dilla, Yirgalem (Aposto), Wondo-genet, Sodo, etc., and open spaces or roadsides, plastic shelters, and houses, indicating poor marketing conditions in the study areas. The majority (93.6%) of avocado traders reported that the smallholder farmers can sell the fruits directly to consumers, wholesalers, or vendors in the nearby markets within the growing area. As indicated in Table 4, the Chi-squared result showed that there was a significant difference in the prices of avocado in each local market. Its prices per quintal in Sidama areas were significantly (p < 0.001) greater than those of Gedeo and Wolayta. The reason for this may be due to the availability of Yirgalem Agro Industry Park to bargain avocado products from smallholder farmers, or the farmers in the Sidama region may sell their fruits to consumers in the nearby city of Hawassa. Other farmers sell the avocado fruits to the wholesalers or vendors on the farm, who come from within the same region or from a more distant region through middlemen. Approximately 33.4% of respondents reported that avocado growers or smallholder farmers sell the fruits while they are mature enough to harvest on the trees to wholesalers and vendors through a signed convention. Our finding agrees with the research result obtained by Juma and his colleagues in Tanzania (Juma et al., 2019).

Table 4. Chi-square test result for average prices of avocado fruit reported by traders in the study areas.

Study areas	Number of avocado traders reported prices	Average prices of avocado
		One Quintal/ETB	χ2	df	p value
Sidama	20	1000	100	2	0.000**
Gedeo	5	600
Wolayta	5	800

Notes: ETB = Ethiopian Birr; **statistically significant; df = degree of freedom.

On the other hand, the traders and farmers in the study areas have faced many market-related challenges, such as limited market access, short shelf lives, poor road networks, and inadequate means of transportation. Approximately 93.3% of local traders noted that poor marketing conditions contributed to high postharvest waste and low profitability for them in the study area. Other studies confirmed that the absence of a well-organized, stable, and reliable market is the major constraint for food tree products at the local and international market level (Degrande et al., 2006; Juma et al., 2019). Avocado is an annual crop that is not stored from one crop year to the next due to its easily perishable nature (short shelf life), and many fruits during marketing become unmarketable. The growers and traders reported that the main limitation of the avocado market occurred during high production periods of this crop (February to April). Approximately 76.7% of the avocado traders mentioned that the short shelf life of the local avocado also mainly affected their business. Limited shelf life has been reported to affect avocado trade in Kenya (Omolo et al., 2011) and Tanzania (Juma et al., 2019). Many overripe avocados become unmarketable and are thrown away as waste or fed to animals due to their short shelf life. Few traders (13.3%) sell overripe avocados to farmers at a lower price (15–20 birr/kg) for seed extraction. These findings agreed with those of Yigzaw et al. (2016), conducted in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia. The other challenge faced by the farmers or traders was poor road networks and means of transportation to transport their products. The poor quality of seasonal roads, which become slippery during rainy seasons, was mainly observed in Boloso Sore and Wonago districts during our field observation. The World Economic Forum report indicated that poor means of transport have been reported to cause about 5% of avocado losses in Kenya (World Economic Forum, 2019). Similarly, poor road networks and limited transportation facilities were reported as the main avocado market-related constraints in the Philippines (Sotto, 2000), Tanzania (Dube et al., 2018), and Ethiopia (Yigzaw et al., 2016). Therefore, an effort is required to organize markets, facilitate infrastructure for avocado farmers and traders, and recycle overripe fruits either by using them as animal feed or preparing organic fertilizer through composting.

Conclusions

The findings from the present study revealed that most avocado farmers were men, while the local avocado business was dominated by women, who represented 73.3% of the interviewed avocado traders. In conclusion, this study makes an important contribution to the literature by providing empirical evidence of factors that constrain avocado production in southern Ethiopia, such as poor fruit retention, weak agronomic practices, diseases and pests, longevity to bear fruits or failure to bear fruits at all, limited access to improved varieties, lack of an organized market, insufficient extension services, small land sizes, climate change, drought, and low soil fertility. In the near future, these factors will continue to pose serious difficulties for Ethiopia in competing with major global and regional avocado producers. Therefore, the study recommends that Ethiopia’s government or avocado horticultural sectors should take appropriate actions to address the challenges that smallholder farmers have faced in the production of avocado at the regional, district, and neighborhood levels to improve the livelihood of Ethiopian farmers growing this crop. The fungal infections discovered in this study were detected only by the signs and symptoms reported by avocado farmers. Thus, further research should be conducted using tools based on molecular markers, which allow the accurate identification of many fungal diseases mentioned in the study. This allows for the creation of appropriate strategies for the handling and control of diseases that affect avocados in the study areas.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to smallholder farmers and local traders who shared their knowledge and for their overall hospitality. We also acknowledge the horticultural departments of the Wondo-genet, Dalle, Dara, Bensa, Dilla Zuria, Wonago, Boloso Sore, and Damota Gale districts and their respective local authorities for providing us with the verbal agreement prior to administering the interview and discussions.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

Partial financial support was received from Hawassa University and the Hawassa College of Teacher Education. The funders had no role in the design of the study, in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data, in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.