Exploring the Combined Effects of Socio-Political Conflicts and Patriarchic Society on a Construction Career Path: Evidence from Afghan Female Professionals

ABSTRACT

Women’s under-representation in the construction industry is evident in developing and developed economies worldwide. Previous studies show that several factors, including cultural and societal norms, result in the low participation of women in the construction industry. This study explores the combined effects of socio-political conflicts and patriarchic society on female construction professionals’ experiences and career paths in the Afghan construction industry. The thematic analysis of the qualitative data collected from in-depth semi-structured interviews with eight Afghan female construction professionals revealed that social and political unrest influenced their career choices and career growth in the Afghan construction industry. In addition, widespread corruption and security issues distinctly shaped their work experiences. The findings also revealed the negative influence of overprotective culture and religious beliefs on women professionals’ experiences and careers. Finally, this study found that office-based roles, family support, and technology adoption encouraged women’s participation in the Afghan construction industry. Given the scarcity of research from similar contexts, this study provides empirical evidence on various challenges female professionals face in the construction industry in patriarchic societies and war-affected and conflict-sensitive regions.

KEYWORDS:

• Construction industry
• women professionals
• patriarchy
• war
• Afghanistan

Introduction

Reader advice: This research investigates women’s work experiences and construction careers in a highly patriarchal society and conflict-prone environment. The findings are based on interviews with Afghan female professionals and include several direct quotes reflecting on their life experiences due to the qualitative nature of the inquiry. Consequently, the study may trigger previous experiences and traumas, and readers may find it distressing.

Over 1.5 billion people live in regions and countries affected by war, conflict, and violence (GIZ, 2015). The war and regular conflicts adversely affect the existing housing and infrastructure in these areas. Consequently, the construction industry plays an essential role in the recovery and reconstruction efforts in conflict and war-affected regions. For instance, the construction sector’s share of Afghanistan’s GDP was the highest (i.e., 28%) in 2006; in 2020, it was still as high as 14% (World Bank, 2022).

The decades-long civil unrest and conflict severely damaged Afghanistan’s critical infrastructure, including roads and public buildings. Following the United States (US) invasion of Afghanistan after the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, hopes were high that the regime change would help rebuild Afghanistan (Moghadam, 2002). The international community made several efforts to bring peace to Afghanistan and redirect the country toward development and prosperity. The US and its allies spent considerable money on reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan. Recent reports show that the US has spent more than $145 billion rebuilding Afghanistan over the last two decades (SIGAR, 2021). Besides spending on infrastructure projects, the US government and its allies also worked to reinstate human rights in Afghanistan, specifically women’s rights.

Afghan women are considered the primary victims of decades-long war and socio-political conflicts. In addition, patriarchy and conservative cultural and religious beliefs practised in most parts of Afghanistan discouraged women, often preventing them from accessing higher education and pursuing professional careers (Moghadam, 2002). However, several policies and strategies to promote women’s participation in governance and rebuilding efforts in Afghanistan were formulated and implemented after the Ministry of Women Affairs was established for the first time in Afghanistan in 2001 (MOWA, 2021). In addition, adopting the Elimination of Violence against Afghan Women (EVAW) law in 2009 was a significant step forward in providing Afghan women access to justice (HRW, 2021). Furthermore, in 2013, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) announced Promote, a five-year program to help 75,000 Afghan women gain access to education, internships, jobs, and promotion (USAID, 2017).

With an allocated fund of $216 million, Promote is considered the most prominent women empowerment program in the history of Afghanistan (USAID, 2017). More specifically, the program helped Afghan women in critical areas such as leadership development, permanent employment positions in the Afghan civil services through internships and civil society support, and enhanced participation in building the economy (USAID, 2017). However, the Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction (SIGAR) questioned the sustainability and achievements of the Promote program in meeting its overarching goal of enhancing the status of Afghan women in the government and private sectors (SIGAR, 2018). Nonetheless, the U.S. government and other organizations helped more than 60,000 Afghan girls access universities and facilitated internships and employment opportunities for more than 3,000 women (USAID, 2021). Therefore, many initiatives taken toward uplifting the role and status of women in Afghan society proved to be successful to a certain extent as Afghan women started to participate in reconstructing the country as engineers and architects.

In 2016, USAID initiated the Engineering Support Program to provide engineering and construction management services for infrastructure projects in Afghanistan (USAID, 2019). As a part of this program, internship opportunities were provided to newly graduated architects and engineers. This internship program proved to be helpful for female Afghan engineers. By 2019, the internship program helped 32 newly graduated female engineers gain experience and learn useful engineering software (USAID, 2019). Consequently, the participation of women in the engineering disciplines started to increase, and more women joined the construction industry. For example, one of the major achievements of women working in construction was the restoration of Darulaman Palace in Kabul by a group of 27 female engineers (Rasad, 2017).

Women accounted for 49.58% of the global population in 2019 per United Nations (UN) data (UN Department for Economic and Social Affairs, 2019). In Afghanistan, women comprise 48.68% of the country’s total population (World Bank, 2009). However, despite gender equality initiatives, the female labor force participation rate in Afghanistan was 21.76% in 2019, among the lowest globally (World Bank, 2021). Due to the unavailability of data, the percentage of females in the Afghan construction industry workforce is unknown. However, both anecdotal and empirical evidence suggests that construction remains a male-dominated industry worldwide (Hasan et al., 2021). Due to macho work culture and discriminatory practices, women experience several barriers to employment and career progression in the construction industry (Aboagye-Nimo et al., 2019; Navarro-Astor et al., 2017). In countries such as Afghanistan, women working in the construction industry can be expected to be more vulnerable to discriminatory practices and harassment due to patriarchic society and deeply embedded gender-based stereotypes and cultural norms, despite the progress made toward promoting women’s rights. Women who finally get the opportunity to study and work face many social and cultural constraints. Female engineers have been found to change careers due to security issues, family pressure, and societal pressure (AWNA, 2017). Women also find it notably challenging to work on construction sites due to harassment from male workers (BBC, 2017).

The semi-structured interviews with eight female professionals in this study explored the experiences and careers of women working in the Afghan construction industry. The study’s objective was to examine the combined influence of patriarchy and socio-political conflict on the experiences and careers of female construction professionals. The findings are expected to inform the decisions and practices of policymakers, construction organizations, international funding bodies and non-government organizations involved in delivering projects in Afghanistan and other similar contexts.

Literature review

The experiences and careers of women trades workers and professionals in the construction industry have been globally explored during the last two decades, mainly focussing on the barriers women face at different stages of their construction careers, from recruitment to promotion and appointment in senior roles. Most existing studies have examined women’s participation in construction and associated challenges emanating from social and cultural norms, gender bias and a male-dominated work environment (Aboagye-Nimo et al., 2019; Ackrill et al., 2017; Olofsdotter & Randevåg, 2016). Previous researchers have discussed theories such as the glass ceiling, the glass wall, and the leaky pipeline to explain gender inequality in the construction industry. The glass ceiling metaphor has been used to refer to the challenges or barriers women face in their career development (Aboagye-Nimo et al., 2019; Barreto et al., 2017; Styhre, 2011). In contrast, the glass wall theory refers to complexities associated with the barriers concerning women’s entry into the construction industry and working in certain positions (Dainty et al., 2004; English & Jeune, 2012; Styhre, 2011). On the other hand, the leaky pipeline explains the higher turnover of women than men in the construction industry. The discriminatory attitudes of male workers and managers, fewer on-site job opportunities and career breaks in employment due to family commitments and poor work-life balance affected the career growth of women in the construction industry (Aboagye-Nimo et al., 2019; Regis et al., 2019; Worrall et al., 2010). Moreover, many women were forced to quit their job due to a culture of presenteeism and unfriendly family policies in the construction industry (Cabrera, 2009).

Previous researchers have also found that the career choice considerations for women in the construction industry were influenced by individual attributes such as personnel interest, having higher confidence, interest in science and mathematics, the influence of parents, and environmental factors (Bona et al., 2010; Moore & Gloeckner, 2007; Oo et al., 2018). In addition, self-efficacy, motivation, role models and mentors, internships, and awareness of career opportunities played crucial in attracting and retaining women in the construction industry (Bigelow et al., 2015; Thevenin et al., 2016). Role models, mentors, or significant others were also identified as the most valuable resource in women’s career development and job satisfaction (English & Hay, 2015; Fernando et al., 2014; Rosa et al., 2017).

To develop a comprehensive understanding of the research conducted on women in the construction industry worldwide, the authors studied the relevant research synthesized in two existing review papers. The systematic literature review by Navarro-Astor et al. (2017), based on 60 articles published between 2000 and 2015, offered detailed insights into women’s career development in the construction industry, especially the critical barriers to women’s careers. In contrast, the scientometric review by Hasan et al. (2021), based on 128 journal articles published from 2000 to 2019, summarized the existing research on women in construction in different research themes through cluster analysis and developed future research agenda. The following paragraphs discuss some research findings from developed and developing countries. However, the literature review in the present study focuses more on developing countries where social and cultural barriers to women’s employment are typically more prevalent, similar to Afghanistan.

While women have more freedom and rights in developed countries than in developing countries, they are still expected to fulfil domesticity and caring responsibilities (Bryce et al., 2019). Consequently, they often faced a dilemma concerning building a successful career in the construction industry and raising a family. Previous studies have also identified other leading causes of the under-representation of women in the construction industry, such as male-dominated organizational cultures, sexism and unfair treatment, negative perception toward women, informal recruitment practices, discrimination, poor image of the construction industry, gender pay gap, inflexible working practices, poor work-life balance and slow career progression (Aboagye-Nimo et al., 2019; Azhar & Griffin, 2014; Rosa et al., 2017; Worrall et al., 2010). Additionally, women in senior roles felt ignored while trying to contribute to the organizational decision-making processes (Aboagye-Nimo et al., 2019). In developed countries, many gender equality policies and initiatives have been adopted to promote construction careers among women in recent years (Hasan et al., 2021). However, despite these efforts, progress toward attracting more women to the construction sector in countries such as France and the United Kingdom remained slow (Ackrill et al., 2017).

In developing countries, women faced more severe challenges due to rigid gender roles informed by ideological, religious, cultural, social, and economic determinants that limited their primary role to household activities and did not allow them to work for long hours outside their homes in a male-dominated construction site environment (Hasan et al., 2021; Navarro-Astor et al., 2017). Vijayaragunathan and Rasanthi (2019) found significant barriers to women professionals’ career progress in the Sri Lankan construction industry were family commitments, sexist attitudes, and a lack of female role models. Moreover, their study showed a substantial disparity between female employment status, income and professional advancement within the sector compared with men. The lack of gender diversity was compounded by misinformation about construction careers and the qualification requirements propagated by family members and career advisers (Vijayaragunathan & Rasanthi, 2019).

In a study on the gendered division of labor on construction sites in Zanzibar, Eliufoo (2006) revealed that women worked as unskilled workers and received a lower wage than male workers primarily due to a lack of access to education and training opportunities and poor social support. Furthermore, the confinement of women to household activities was considered a typical cultural norm in Zanzibar due to the strong influence of Arab culture. Based on interviews with 28 women civil engineers and architects involved in construction work in the Gaza Strip, Enshassi et al. (2008) found that the culture overprotective of women did not allow them to travel or work on construction sites limiting their skill development and career opportunities. Additionally, women were expected to be good mothers and homemakers. In Bangladesh, Hossain and Kusakabe (2005) and Choudhury (2013) found that cultural constraints, the social norm of purdah and patriarchy discouraged both women workers and engineers from joining male-dominated construction workplaces. For women workers in the construction industry, paid work offered economic autonomy and mobility. However, they continued experiencing discrimination, verbal abuse, and sexual harassment (Choudhury, 2013). Hossain and Kusakabe (2005) compared the experiences of women engineers in Thailand and Bangladesh and concluded that women were given fewer opportunities in Bangladesh due to the tighter social norms of seclusion of women, travel restrictions and less secure sites for women to work.

While the theories of the glass wall, the glass ceiling, and the leaky pipeline have helped researchers and practitioners discover the reasons behind gender inequality and devise measures to promote women’s participation in the construction industry, they are yet to be explored in patriarchal and conflict-sensitive societies such as Afghanistan where women can be expected to endure more severe challenges. Furthermore, in their literature review, Hasan et al. (2021) noted that the existing research on women in the construction industry had been predominantly undertaken in European nations, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. They argued that the lack of research on women professionals and entrepreneurs in the construction industry in the context of developing countries is alarming and demands more research efforts to understand the experiences of women and their career progression. Finally, the combined influence of socio-political conflicts and patriarchic society on women’s experiences and career paths in the construction industry has not been examined sufficiently in the existing literature. The present study aimed to fill these research gaps by exploring the experiences and careers of female construction professionals in a highly conservative, conflict-prone, and patriarchal Afghan society.

Research methodology

The data for this study were collected between November 2020 and January 2021. Following a qualitative research approach, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight Afghan female construction professionals to explore their beliefs, perceptions, work experiences and career paths. Hartmann (1933) described an interview as a “conversation with a purpose.” Today, interviews are among the most widely used qualitative research methods across various disciplines (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006; Marvasti, 2010). Interviews can elicit meaningful narratives and thereby play a crucial role in attending to the complexity of a research topic (Hollway & Jefferson, 1997).

The participants for the semi-structured interviews were selected using non-probability or purposeful sampling according to the needs of this research (Aboagye-Nimo et al., 2019; Afolabi et al., 2017; Cattell et al., 2016; Choudhury, 2013). Purposeful sampling seeks to maximize the depth and richness of the data to address the research question (McIntosh & Morse, 2015). This study involved a select group of women with work experience in the Afghan construction industry. The selection criteria focused on representatives of different professional roles, organizations, and family circumstances.

First, four participants were recruited through the professional network of the first author, a resident of Afghanistan who worked in the local construction industry at the time of data collection. Next, among the various strategies available for purposeful sampling, such as convenience, snowball, homogeneous and variable sampling (McIntosh & Morse, 2015), a snowball sampling technique was employed to recruit more study participants. Finally, eight out of twelve women invited to interviews agreed to participate in this study. The remaining four declined the invitation for the interview citing time constraints and personal reasons.

Qualitative researchers have varied opinions about the estimation of sample size for interviews to provide credible analysis and reporting (Marshall et al., 2013; Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007). Previous researchers have suggested that the smallest acceptable sample size for interviews ranges from six to 36 (Bertaux, 1981; Creswell, 1998; Kuzel, 1999). Therefore, interviews with eight participants in this study meet the minimum sample size criterion. Moreover, the size of a sample is influenced by both theoretical and practical considerations (Robinson, 2014). Finding women professionals working in the Afghan construction industry was challenging due to their low representation in the workforce. Moreover, some women may not feel safe or comfortable sharing their experiences and personal accounts of harassment and discrimination in a patriarchic society. In addition, restrictions on travel due to security issues and the COVID-19 pandemic further affected the opportunities to recruit more participants for the study. The limited presence of Afghan women on social media platforms such as LinkedIn was another factor that affected the sample size. Lastly, the authors prioritized quality over quantity to capture diverse experiences and careers and did not recruit multiple participants from the same organization or similar characteristics (Tummalapudi et al., 2022). Table 1 shows the demographics of the interview participants.

Table 1. Interview participants’ demographics

Interview participants	Age	Qualifications	Designation	Location	Marital Status	Family Composition
Participant 1	33	Bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering	Structural Designer	Herat	Single	Parents, four sisters, and two brothers
Participant 2	28	Bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering	Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Engineer	Kabul	Single	Parents, five sisters, and two brothers
Participant 3	26	Master’s degree in Structural Engineering	Project Controls Specialist	Kabul	Single	Parents and one brother
Participant 4	34	Bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering	Design Engineer	Herat	Single	Parents and three sisters
Participant 5	25	Bachelor’s degree in Architecture Engineering	Design Engineer	Herat	Married	Husband and wife
Participant 6	27	Bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering	Design Engineer	Herat	Engaged	Parents and four brothers
Participant 7	30	Bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering	Shelter Officer	Herat	Married	Husband, wife, and twin sons
Participant 8	31	Bachelor’s degree in Architecture Engineering	Project Manager	Kabul	Married	Husband, wife, and two children

Interviewees included three design engineers, a structural designer, an architect, a project controls specialist, a Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) engineer, a shelter officer, and a project manager. The universities in Afghanistan offer bachelor’s degrees in Civil Engineering, Architecture and Structural Engineering but not in Construction Engineering or Management. After graduation, engineering graduates and architects join the construction industry and work in different roles for government departments and construction organizations. Due to social norms and restrictions, women often take up office-based roles such as design engineers, responsible for preparing drawings and specifications and overseeing the construction progress. WASH engineer and shelter officer positions are offered mainly by humanitarian and non-government organizations in Afghanistan. They involve simple construction activities considered more suitable for women.

Interviewees were aged between 25 and 34 years old. Except for three married women, all were living with their parents and siblings. Five out of eight interviewees were from Herat, and the remaining three were residents of the capital city of Kabul. Including interviewees from all major provinces in Afghanistan was not practically feasible due to the unavailability of women practitioners in relatively more unsafe or overprotective regions. For instance, searching for potential interviewees in Kandahar was unsuccessful due to the unavailability of women professionals in government departments or construction companies in this province

As Knox and Burkard (2009) recommended, the semi-structured interview protocol was shared with participants in advance to inform them about the study’s aims, the voluntary nature of participation, and anonymity and confidentiality aspects to help them reach an informed decision concerning their participation. The interview protocol served as a guide but allowed creativity and flexibility (Flick, 2002; Knox & Burkard, 2009). The interview questions evolved and were refined during the interview process, which is typical in reflexive and interactive qualitative enquiry (Agee, 2009; Creswell, 2014). An excerpt of the protocol is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. An excerpt of the interview protocol

Interview details	Date
	Time
	Duration
	Format of interview (Face-to-face/Telephone/Online)
Interviewee details	Name
	Age
	Job profile
	Location
	Family composition
Consent	Consent for audio recording (Yes/No)
Opening question	Can you describe your current role in your organisation?
Main interview questions	What did motivate you to build a career in the construction industry?
	Could you please describe your study and recruitment experiences?
	Could you please tell us about your good and bad experiences in the construction industry?
	What are your family members’ and others’ views on your job?
	What are the opportunities and challenges associated with working in the construction industry as a female professional?
	Are your job expectations aligning with your job experiences?
	How did you overcome some of the challenges you faced at your workplace?
Closing question	Is there anything you would like to add to our discussion?

*Probes and follow-up questions were asked based on the answers to the main interview questions.

Each interviewee was interviewed once, and each interview was approximately 30–45 minutes long. Due to security concerns and the COVID-19 pandemic, interviews were conducted via telephone. Following a brief explanation of the study’s nature and participants’ rights, the first author (interviewer) asked for permission from the interviewee to record the interview. Probes explored issues that arose spontaneously based on interviewees’ responses and helped obtain specific information. The recorded interviews were transcribed and translated into English for data analysis using NVivo (Version 12, QSR) software. The analysis approach used in this research followed the six-step procedure for thematic analysis recommended by Braun and Clarke (2006), i.e., (1) become familiar with the data, (2) generate initial codes, (3) search for themes, (4) review themes, (5) define and name themes and (6) produce the report. Both authors were involved in the coding and analysis process. The authors followed different means of establishing trustworthiness during different phases of thematic analysis, such as prolonged engagement with data, keeping records of data analysis, use of a coding framework, audit trail of code generation, themes and subthemes, team consensus on themes, and describing the analysis process in sufficient details (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Nowell et al., 2017). The similarly coded data were grouped into subthemes, and subthemes were consolidated into various themes. There was no disagreement between the authors concerning the coding process and identification of themes.

Findings

Thematic analysis of the interview data led to the following three themes: (1) career choice considerations, (2) barriers to career development, and (3) enablers to career development. Interview participant experiences have been presented under these three themes. Representative anonymous quotes from participants are used as relevant examples of their observations and experiences, with the participant information shown in brackets.

Career choice considerations

Interviewees shared their reasons and motives behind joining the construction industry in Afghanistan. The main reasons included contribution to reconstruction efforts, socioeconomic benefits, and self-efficacy. Most interviewees described that they were motivated by their desire to contribute to the reconstruction of war-torn Afghanistan. Putting the country on track toward development, helping people, and making a significant change in society influenced their career choices. Interviewees also emphasized the importance of equal participation of men and women engineers in the rehabilitation of Afghanistan.

We see ruins everywhere as a result of the blasts and explosions … It will take years to reconstruct Afghanistan, and for this, we need engineers. (Participant 4, design engineer)

Afghanistan needs reconstruction and rebuilding, so not only men but women should also take part and do whatever they can for their country. Our country has suffered so much from wars that only men’s effort won’t be enough for rebuilding. (Participant 8, project manager)

The high remuneration and elevated social status also attracted Afghan women to the construction industry. Interviewees expressed that the financial benefits for them and their families were a motivating factor for them to choose construction as a career. Construction organizations in Afghanistan offered relatively higher salaries due to the demand for construction workers and professionals. Participant 1 revealed that she considered a career in engineering to elevate her status in society.

I consulted my friend … She told me about her salary and other benefits she was receiving from her job … her salary was much higher in comparison to the work. (Participant 2, WASH engineer)

For me, the main benefit of being a construction community member is that I will be influential in society. I can make a change and take important decisions. (Participant 1, structural designer)

Participant 6 described how working in the construction sector and building a successful career as an engineer could protect women from violence by making them financially independent.

Uneducated or unemployed women become victims of domestic violence. In most cases, they accept a miserable life because they won’t be able to live separately without any source of income. But female engineers don’t rely on anybody else for their living expenses. (Participant 6, design engineer)

Based on the shared views of interviewees, these women’s desire to pursue careers in the construction industry overpowered the resistance from society. As a result, women could work in male-dominated environments to follow their passion and support their families despite facing several issues. The interviewees revealed they were confident they possessed all the required capabilities to become engineers. When in high school, they linked engineering with mathematics. The interviewees also expressed immense passion and interest in the construction field despite the general perception that the construction sector is unsuitable for women.

My interest in Civil engineering started in 8^th grade. I was so interested in this field that I applied for an exchange program during my last semester at university … I was the first girl from Afghanistan to apply for this exchange program. This shows my passion for engineering. (Participant 1, structural designer)

One of the interviewees (participant 2), working with an international organization in the area of sustainable development, reported that individual attributes influenced her decision to become an engineer.

During my last year of school, I decided to study engineering and work in this field. I always believed I had all the required skills and abilities to become a successful engineer. (Participant 2, WASH engineer)

All interviewees emphasized that factors such as personnel interest and hard and soft skills played a crucial role in their career choices in the construction industry. While mentors and role models could influence educational and career ambitions (Thevenin et al., 2016), the interviewees had limited access to other female professionals in the construction industry. However, they revealed that they want to act as role models and facilitate the entry of more women into the Afghan construction industry.

Barriers to career development

Socio-cultural constraints

All interviewees agreed that the societal norms and the overprotective Afghan culture negatively influenced their career development. The interviewees expressed that society does not provide any support to promote women in the construction industry in Afghanistan. The lack of acceptance of women in construction roles in the community has roots in outdated cultural beliefs and low literacy in the country. Most people did not want women to work on construction projects in a male-dominated environment. The widespread belief in society was that women should not participate in construction activities with men.

Sometimes people tell me that the engineering field belongs to men. Our society is still not ready to accept that women can work with men in the construction sector. (Participant 2, WASH engineer)

In our culture, women must stay at home, and only men can work outside. In most parts of our country, girls are not even allowed to attend school. (Participant 3, project controls specialist)

However, the interviewees showed the courage to disagree with the view of society and decided to choose construction professions as their career.

Let me make it very clear that the view of society is not very important to me, and so far, I have not been hindered in my work because of the view of society. (Participant 7, shelter officer)

The interviewees revealed horrifying and disturbing experiences from their fieldwork and site visits which showed the extent of hostility against working due to socio-cultural gender norms. They said they felt uncomfortable during site visits and found workers staring at them on construction sites which was always an extremely unpleasant experience. In addition, they were harassed by the workers and the public as soon as they left the office and went out for site visits.

I was an intern at […], where we joined a site visit on Chehelseton road [Kabul, Afghanistan]. Many residents of the nearby areas gathered and started laughing at us, saying look at the ladies, and kept laughing. After a few minutes, a man threw a stone toward us that injured two of us. We left the site immediately. (Participant 8, project manager)

Furthermore, interviewees said that clients preferred working with men and did not show confidence in technical work performed by women. As a result, female professionals found it extremely difficult to deal with project owners. Interviewees often struggled to convince clients while presenting their ideas. Therefore, unfair treatment in society and at their workplace and discriminatory behavior undermined female professionals’ technical capabilities in the Afghan construction industry.

Organizational culture

Organizational culture plays a crucial role in shaping women’s experiences in the workplace. It could support the participation of women in the construction industry in patriarchal societies (Hossain & Kusakabe, 2005). However, most interviewees expressed deep concerns over workplace culture and women’s safety in the Afghan construction industry. They revealed that cultural practices in the workplace were their first consideration before joining an organization. The interviewees expressed a lack of desire to work for private construction companies in Afghanistan due to their sexist workplace culture.

Working in a private construction company was very difficult for me. I felt uncomfortable because I was the only female staff and, therefore, subjected to sexist attitudes. (Participant 4, design engineer)

Interviewees described that working in the Afghan public sector was also not their preferred option. They were concerned over reports of women employed in government departments being verbally, physically, and sexually harassed. Instead, interviewees believed that international companies and not-for-profit organizations in Afghanistan provided safer workplaces for women.

As a woman, I found international organisations relatively safe for women than government departments. I felt this and also heard from my friends that the government staff harassed them, which is not good. (Participant 8, project manager)

The interviewees also shed light on the unhealthy competition among the staff within construction organizations in Afghanistan. Their male peers did not hesitate to undermine their achievements by any means. The intensity of this negative behavior was higher among male and female staff than among males only. For instance, one of the interviewees described her experiences of unfair competition in the workplace as follows.

Some of our colleagues were jealous and couldn’t tolerate my success. They always tried to get credit for our work. Whenever a design was rejected, it was all my fault, but they claimed all the credit whenever I did some good work. (Participant 7, shelter officer)

The interviewees disclosed that the absence of women in leadership and managerial hierarchy further contributed to this discriminatory behavior and negative attitudes.

Security concerns

Security issues have a significant impact on the socioeconomic development of Afghanistan. The ongoing civil unrest and conflicts in Afghanistan affect the performance of construction projects and the practitioners’ attitudes (Gidado & Niazai, 2012; Kakar et al., 2020, 2022). Interviewees considered security issues a significant bottleneck for women’s employment and career progression in the Afghan construction industry. The security issues due to the volatile social and political environment limited employment opportunities available to Afghan women in the construction industry and prevented them from traveling to construction sites. Previous studies show that on-site experiences are critical for career advancement in the construction industry (Hasan et al., 2021).

Engineering is the field that is most affected by [the lack of] security. Engineers have been kidnapped, tortured, and killed because of their jobs. (Participant 7, shelter officer)

The first thing I consider when applying for a job is the location of the project and the safety and security conditions. I avoid jobs that require travelling or are located in remote areas due to security concerns. Unfortunately, I have missed several good positions with high salaries because of security issues. (Participant 2, WASH engineer)

Women can’t travel to remote locations [to visit project sites]. This is also why women prefer to work in cities because they can’t go to rural areas for security reasons. (Participant 6, design engineer)

One interviewee described how the ongoing conflicts and violence in Afghanistan affected girls’ education and training.

When I was a student, the boys in our class went to Kabul for a surveying course and learnt how to use a Total Station, but the girls couldn’t travel due to safety and security concerns. (Participant 4, design engineer)

Interviewees also suggested that the complexities associated with insecure and unsafe work environments must be considered by Afghan women while choosing a construction career. They must be ready to accept security threats and deal with them as a part of their job.

Everyone knows that our country is insecure. There is violence, and women are mistreated in our community … if someone is fine with working in these conditions and their family is not against their decision, they can choose this career. Otherwise, it is better to work in some other sector. (Participant 7, shelter officer)

Due to safety and security concerns and cultural norms, Afghan women are prohibited from traveling without a Mahram (close family companion) in Afghanistan. Therefore, the limitation on traveling and site visits due to security issues is a significant challenge for women in the Afghan construction industry.

Corruption (irregularities and unethical practices)

Corruption is a significant problem in the construction industry in Afghanistan (Gidado & Niazai, 2012; Niazi & Painting, 2017). Afghanistan ranked 174th out of 180 countries in 2021 as per Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index (Transparency International, 2021). As a weak link in a male-dominated industry, women could easily become victims of corrupt practices, which adversely influence their careers and social status. While most interviewees hesitated to discuss corruption openly, one described how she felt about the irregularities in construction practices in the Afghan construction industry.

When I started working with this construction company, I was involved in preparing proposals and bid documents for new projects. At that time, I realized how corrupt the bidding process was … I was very disappointed and didn’t want to be involved in unethical practices. So, I stayed away from anything related to corruption as much as possible. (Participant 5, design engineer)

Participant 5 also described how corruption in the workplace and industry could affect the employment opportunities of men and women differently.

Female engineers are discouraged from working on projects when corruption is involved because it can affect their dignity if they work on such projects. But, on the other hand, it may not be as bad for men. (Participant 5, design engineer)

The interviewees also identified corrupt recruitment practices that affect women’s careers in the industry. For example, participant 1, who had worked in a not-for-profit organization and a private construction company, reported that the corrupt recruitment process limits employment opportunities for women in the Afghan construction industry.

The problem here [in Afghanistan] is that job opportunities are limited because of corruption. So, corruption also affects the rare job opportunities that we get … But if you compare job opportunities in Dubai, I sent my CV to a few companies; at that time, I was a fresher, and you won’t believe I got a job on the first day. Unlike in Afghanistan, they didn’t recruit relatives and friends. They recruited based on merit and through a transparent hiring procedure. (Participant 1, structural designer)

Another interviewee also disclosed that recruitment practices are corrupt in most organizations; however, she described that her qualifications and previous work experience helped her get a job.

Some people complain that you won’t be hired if you don’t know people who recommend you or if you don’t pay money. So, there are indeed corrupt organisations, but it doesn’t mean all of them are corrupt. (Participant 2, WASH engineer)

Another interviewee expressed her intention to establish her own construction company but pointed out how widespread corruption prevented her from reaching this goal:

I want to establish my own company, but the main problem is that the people with whom I discussed my plans were only keen on the real estate business. They wanted to build low-quality residential buildings and sell them, but I don’t want that (Participant 1, structural engineer)

Enablers to career development

Interviewees stressed that office-based jobs facilitated their careers in the construction industry because working from an office eliminated some concerns related to traveling and working on construction sites. Despite facing other undesirable workplace issues, such as sexism and discriminatory practices, they felt more comfortable working in the office than on construction sites.

Interviewees also reported their desire to act as entrepreneurs by establishing their own construction companies and working in leadership positions in the industry. One of the interviewees who described construction as their family business expressed immense satisfaction with her experiences working with other family members. She advised Afghan female engineers to start a business in the industry rather than working for other companies.

We own a construction company … We all work in a very friendly environment. Everyone is respected regardless of their job position … what can be better than having your own construction company. (Participant 6, design engineer)

Interviewees also mentioned that government support is crucial for increasing the participation of women in the Afghan construction industry. Providing equal educational opportunities enabled Afghan girls to pursue degrees in engineering fields. In addition, adopting fair practices and policies concerning women’s rights created new employment opportunities in the construction sector for women. The interviewees also emphasized the importance of workplace support. The support from different stakeholders needs to be extended to women working in the industry to retain them.

There are good educational opportunities available. You can pursue your education in different engineering fields, such as Civil, Architecture, Mechanical, or Electrical, from any private or public university. Some universities even offer master’s degrees. (Participant 8, project manager)

The public sector and NGOs provide equal opportunities for men and women who want to apply for construction jobs, and they hire employees based on merit. If you check online job search websites, they clearly mention that women are encouraged to apply for most positions. (Participant 2, WASH engineer)

All interviewees in this study also acknowledged that family support was instrumental in making it possible for them to pursue a career in the construction industry. For example, participant 7 mentioned that her “husband takes care of their twin sons when she is working.”

Fortunately, my family is very supportive. If they hadn’t supported me, I might have lost motivation. They helped me a lot, and I feel very fortunate. (Participant 1, structural designer)

The interviewees described how they struggled to find their first job after graduation. They identified a lack of employment opportunities, the increasing number of job seekers, corrupt hiring practices, and their lack of work experience made it extremely difficult to find their first job in the industry. However, some interviewees explained how their mentors helped them find jobs in private construction companies. For example, one of the interviewees described that she was hired by a company with the support of one of her teachers.

After graduating from the engineering faculty, I attended an ETABS [software] class. The teacher who taught us ETABS introduced me to […] construction company. I started working there as a draftsman. After some time, I was promoted to an architect position in the company before leaving the company to work as a shelter officer (Participant 7, shelter officer)

Finally, the interviewees mentioned that the challenges Afghan women currently face in the construction industry are very complicated, and barriers such as security issues or social norms are beyond their control. Therefore, it is unclear when and how these issues will be resolved. However, with the help of technology and innovation, they could overcome some of these obstacles. For instance, one of the interviewees explained she used technology to help her manage project-related activities.

Nowadays, there are CCTV cameras on the sites. I can oversee all ongoing activities on the site from my office. I use my phone to receive all information I need from the site. We have a WhatsApp group, and we share all the project-related information on that group, so the need to visit the project site has reduced (Participant 3, project controls specialist)

Discussion

Afghanistan remains a conflict and war-prone country. The data for this study were collected between November 2020 and January 2021. The Taliban returned to power in August 2021 after waging a twenty-year insurgency against the US-backed Afghan government and has since announced new restrictions concerning Afghan women’s access to higher education and employment. It may be noted that even before the Taliban rule, women in many parts of Afghanistan were not allowed to work. However, Afghan women now face more challenges due to restrictions on studying in universities apart from the barriers discovered in this study. The new rules preventing women from working mainly apply to public sector organizations. Private companies and not-for-profit organizations in some places in Afghanistan continue to employ female staff per their policies and hiring procedures. Since the participants interviewed in this study were either from private construction companies or worked for not-for-profit organizations, the findings and implications of this research are still applicable and valuable for practitioners, organizations and funding agencies involved in delivering construction projects in Afghanistan. Moreover, countries and regions like Afghanistan represent a highly challenging work environment for women due to various social, cultural and political barriers. Therefore, the data offers valuable insights into women’s life and work experiences in a conflict-sensitive region and patriarchic society, which otherwise would be difficult to collect in most circumstances.

Since women comprise nearly half of Afghanistan’s population, they could play a crucial role in Afghanistan’s continued development. Previous studies show that the Afghan construction industry faced severe skill shortages in professional roles in delivering construction projects on time and within budget after the departure of many foreign engineers and organizations in recent years (Kakar et al., 2020, 2022). Similarly, poor quality due to a lack of competence and skills affects project performance in Afghanistan (Zaray et al., 2022). Therefore, the almost equal representation of women by population presents many opportunities for the construction industry in countries such as Afghanistan that face enormous reconstruction tasks to rebuild critical infrastructure quickly and efficiently. Additionally, attracting foreign workers and professionals is challenging in war and conflict-prone areas. Therefore, it is crucial to focus on developing human resources locally for sustainable growth.

However, the combined effects of socio-political conflicts and patriarchic society severely affect the participation of women and their careers in the construction industry. Yet, despite all the constraints, the study found that interviewed female Afghan construction professionals had confidence in their abilities and believed they possessed all the required skills to succeed in the male-dominated construction industry. The study also shows that the decisions of female Afghan construction professionals concerning their career choices were influenced not just by socioeconomic factors but also by their strong desire to contribute to the reconstruction and recovery of Afghanistan. Comparatively, women’s career choices in developed countries are driven mainly by personal interests and career opportunities (Oo et al., 2018). Indeed, women in the Afghan construction industry proved their competency by successfully delivering the $16 million Darulaman Palace renovation project (Rasad, 2017).

This study also supports some of the findings of previous research in patriarchal societies regarding barriers and challenges for women in the construction industry (Choudhury, 2013; Eliufoo, 2006; Enshassi et al., 2008; Hossain & Kusakabe, 2005). The women in the Afghan construction industry considered societal norms, cultural and religious beliefs, and organizational culture as crucial barriers to their career progression in the construction industry. Similarly, security issues and poor social support restrict traveling and working on construction sites. These factors were identified to have a similar influence on women’s experiences in the construction industry in Bangladesh and the Gaza strip (Enshassi et al., 2008; Hossain & Kusakabe, 2005). Kakar et al. (2020) discussed that corrupt practices are prevalent at all levels of decision-making in the Afghan construction industry. The present study found that interviewees resisted participating in corrupt and unethical work practices. However, the widespread corruption in the construction industry affected their work experiences and career by limiting employment opportunities, threatening their dignity and reputation in society, and causing poor job satisfaction.

Furthermore, the study found that Afghan women in the construction industry have shown remarkable resilience in a hostile social and political environment. Using technology, they have evolved their practices and upgraded their skills to allow them to work from the office and avoid visiting construction sites. However, they still faced unethical workplace behaviors and unhealthy competition from their male colleagues at their workplaces. The interviewees accepted it as a trade-off between working on-site and at the office. The office-based positions at least offered them some control over workplace location and security. The study further reveals that support from the family can be a significant driver of promoting women in the construction industry in patriarchic societies. Interviewees did not care about the social pressure and others’ perceptions in society when they had support from their family members. A sustained effort and support from all stakeholders would be required to change the deeply embedded cultural attitudes toward women working in the Afghan construction industry. The importance of family support, office-based jobs, and using technology to overcome challenges associated with site visits are essential enablers identified in this study to overcome the combined effects of socio-political conflicts and patriarchic society on the construction career path of women. Moreover, confidence in their abilities, desire to make a change and contribute to the country’s development, financial independence, and resilience in extreme environments helped interviewed women overcome severe challenges presented to them in the Afghan construction industry.

The existing research on women in construction primarily reflects on the glass ceiling, glass wall and leaky pipeline as significant barriers to women’s employment and career growth in the construction industry. In countries where women have fundamental human rights such as access to education and work, these metaphors represent several barriers present at different levels, mainly within an organization or the industry, preventing women from working and succeeding in the construction industry (Hasan et al., 2021). However, this study revealed that women’s work experiences and career challenges are much more complex in conflict-prone countries and patriarchic societies where women struggle for fundamental human rights. Interviewees continued to work under challenging conditions and endured the hardships that came with their careers in the construction industry to support their families and follow their passion. Moreover, they settled for less-paying jobs and did not expect career growth due to social norms and security concerns.

While policy reforms, women empowerment and training programs, and other efforts to increase women’s participation facilitated Afghan women’s entry into the construction industry in Afghanistan, safety and security concerns and social and cultural barriers continue to act as glass wall. Afghan female construction professionals could not travel or work in site-based roles due to safety and security concerns. Moreover, their work did not meet the expectations of a patriarchal society’s gender norm. As a result, the findings show that Afghan female construction professionals did not seem to hit glass ceiling because the glass wall represented a more prominent barrier. In such circumstances, gender equality initiatives could not be effective without grassroots-level societal and cultural changes. Moreover, political decisions, like currently in Afghanistan, in the form of a single government directive, i.e., women are not allowed to work in the public sector, could limit women’s employment opportunities. Therefore, the existing theories and models explaining the lack of gender diversity in construction and gender equality initiatives need to consider political, social, religious and cultural aspects in more detail, in addition to project and organizational factors, in conflict-prone and patriarchic societies.

Conclusion

As the efforts to attract more women to the construction industry are increasing worldwide to promote gender diversity and address skill shortages, the challenges for women in war-affected regions and patriarchic societies remain far more complex. The widespread corruption in the industry, security issues, patriarchic society and a lack of social support limited their employment and career development opportunities. However, despite the social and cultural norms discouraging women from working with men, interviewees showed that women could build careers in the Afghan construction industry and contribute to the nation’s development if given a chance to study and work. Family and workplace support were found to be crucial for women professionals to build successful careers in the Afghan construction industry. Similarly, utilizing advanced technology in construction helped them overcome some security concerns and social barriers. Technology enabled women to work effectively from the office and collect project data without needing to visit the site. Moreover, interviewees also mentioned mentoring could encourage more women to join the construction industry and build successful careers.

The study has a few limitations. First, data collection in a conflict-sensitive region is highly challenging. Despite ensuring the anonymity of responses, the study participants hesitated to offer detailed accounts of workplace-related incidents, such as discrimination and harassment. The respondents’ reluctance to openly discuss such matters was observed during the interviews as they sometimes preferred to report such issues on behalf of their friends or colleagues instead of discussing their personal experiences. In Afghan culture, women fear being judged by society if they disclose incidents of workplace harassment or misconduct against them. Future research could utilize online questionnaire surveys to examine some of these specific workplace issues in more detail. Second, while this research provides a detailed description of women’s experiences and careers in the Afghan construction industry, some of the findings may not necessarily apply to other contexts and work settings due to the nature of qualitative research. Finally, since the interviews were conducted before the Taliban’s return to power, the findings may not necessarily represent Afghan women’s most recent experiences and circumstances. Therefore, more research from Afghanistan and other regions affected by socio-political conflicts and patriarchic societies is highly recommended. Future researchers can also explore how some of the problems identified in this study could be resolved at policy, organization, and project levels to support women’s careers in the construction industry.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.