The impact of Chinese calligraphy practice on athletes’ self-control

ABSTRACT

Case studies in sports suggest that calligraphy practice contributes to the psychological regulation of athletes in competition. Preliminary evidence suggests that Chinese calligraphy practice may enhance athletes’ self-control and emotion regulation. The purpose of this research was to examine the impact of Chinese calligraphy practice on two types of self-control (persistent and inhibitory self-control) and emotion among athletes. Two experiments with a mixed 2 × 2 experimental design was conducted with 207 Chinese collegiate athletes (129 males and 78 females) who were assigned to a calligraphy practice group or a control group. The findings reveal that Chinese calligraphy practice, which involves concentration, meditation, skill training and Taoist ideas, can improve athletes’ self-control. Specifically, it is more effective at enhancing persistent self-control than inhibitory self-control. Moreover, calligraphy practice can lead to increased positive emotion, reduced fatigue, and higher levels of vigor among athletes. These findings enrich the reservoir of psychological training (self-control training) in sports and provides a new self-control intervention.

KEYWORDS:

• Chinese calligraphy
• persistent self-control
• inhibitory self-control
• emotion
• psychological skill training

A core element of optimal performance for athletes in competitions is good self-control (Englert, 2017; Zhang, 2013), which is a prerequisite for them to pursue long-term goals, engage in hard training, and face the pressure of intense competitions. When basketball players execute free throws, they must shield themselves from audio-visual distractions (Wilson et al., 2009); when opponents provoke them, athletes must restrain their anger and other emotions (Wagstaff, 2014); when a match extends into overtime, athletes must persist past their physical limits. Zhang and Zhang (2017) subdivided self-control among athletes into two categories, namely, inhibitory self-control and persistent self-control, to distinguish among different types of mental interventions affecting self-control. Inhibitory self-control refers to an individual’s ability to inhibit an automatic/dominant response and mobilize self-control resources to counteract a preexisting habit. Persistent self-control, on the other hand, is the ability to keep track of behaviour and monitor the implementation of a behaviour, which emphasizes enduring behaviours directed toward goals in difficult situations.

There are two types of interventions that are commonly used to improve self-control. One type of intervention aims to increase self-control through repeated tasks of changing dominant behaviours, such as monitoring and improving posture (Muraven et al., 1999), requiring the use of nondominant hands in daily life (Miles et al., 2016), avoiding slang (Finkel et al., 2009), or using computer tasks that require overcoming dominant responses (Cranwell et al., 2014). The other type of intervention is used to compensate for ego depletion through one-time interventions, such as by eliciting positive emotions (Tice et al., 2007), providing motivational incentives (Muraven & Slessareva, 2003), using self-affirming talk (Schmeichel & Vohs, 2009), altering beliefs about limited resources (Job et al., 2010), and looking at pictures of natural landscapes (Gong et al., 2020), all of which are used to enhance performance on subsequent self-control tasks. Although there are many interventions for improving self-control, most of the psychological skill training in sports for Chinese athletes is based on Western traditions (Zhang & Li, 2019; Zhang & Zhang, 2011), and there is a lack of psychological skill training rooted in traditional Chinese culture. Western psychological interventions are rooted in the individualistic culture of the West, which emphasizes procedural skills such as goal setting, image training, and relaxation training; whereas China is a typical collectivist culture country, which emphasizes wholeness, harmony, and unity of mind and body. Although Western psychological interventions are effective, they may not solve the problems that athletes face in relation to dialectical issues such as gain and loss, advancement and retreat, and success and failure. Therefore, cultural differences may result in Western psychological interventions not being fully compatible with Chinese athletes. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether Chinese calligraphy practice could improve Chinese athletes’ self-control and to develop a calligraphy-based self-control training program.

Chinese calligraphy refers to the writing of Chinese characters using a brush; this is a unique art form derived from Chinese culture and a traditional way to both enhance one’s self-reflection and improve one’s cultivation (Xu et al., 2013). Calligraphy is a traditional Chinese artistic skill that was used in ancient times for keeping historical records and correspondence and has an instrumental function of education and information dissemination. Moreover, calligraphy is rich in Chinese philosophical ideas, such as the Confucian idea of “the golden mean” (moderate in one’s words and deeds) and the Taoist idea of “the way of nature” (following the rules of nature), which are reflected in various aspects of calligraphy, such as the emphasis on coordination, avoidance, and lightness between strokes as well as the harmony, unity, and balance of characters’ structure (Hue, 2010; Lian, 2016). In addition, the process of calligraphy handwriting behaviour and the final presentation of the character reflect unique Chinese values, such as “middle stroke” (meaning that the brush should run in the middle of the stroke when writing, so that the stroke is fuller and thicker), which reflect neutrality and generosity; the principles of “interlacing, avoiding, and collecting on the right and left” in calligraphic strokes, which reflect humility and courtesy; and the principle of “art of omission”, which reflect a holistic view.

Calligraphy practice is a mind–body activity involving visual recognition of stimuli (Chinese characters), fine muscular control of the soft brush, and a highly coordinated process of movement execution (Kao, 2006; Kao et al., 2021). The 2022 Tokyo Olympic windsurfing champion often uses Chinese calligraphy to regulate her mental state before competitions, and she admitted in an interview that it helps her to be calmer and stay focused (Chinanews, 2021). The cybernetic theory of handwriting and calligraphy (Xu et al., 2013) suggests that calligraphic behaviour has three types of feedback. The first category is sensory feedback, which is the behavioural basis of calligraphy and refers to kinesthetic feedback from the fingers, wrist, and arm, as well as immediate visual feedback from the results of brush writing. The second category is bio-emotional feedback, which is the physiological basis of calligraphy and refers to the real-time physical or physiological changes that occur during writing, when the practitioner exhibits a slowed heart rate, slowed breathing, reduced blood pressure, reduced skin conductivity, and calm emotions. The third category is cognitive feedback, which is the interface between Chinese characters and thought activities in calligraphy and refers to the effects of the interaction between Chinese characters and cognition on the practitioner. This category is reflected in the practitioner’s subjective experiences of heightened attention, alertness, and quickened response capacity.

The strength model of self-control (Baumeister et al., 2000; Baumeister & Tice, 2007) posits that controlling habitual thoughts, emotions, and behaviours consume limited mental resources or mental energy; that this mental energy is domain-general; that ego depletion can occur if the energy is not replenished in a timely manner; and that self-control can be improved by training, similar to muscle strength. The cybernetics of self-control (Inzlicht et al., 2014) suggests that self-control consists of three separate processes: goal setting, monitoring for mismatches between goals and current behaviour, and implementing behaviour that is consistent with goals to reduce the size of behaviour – goal mismatches. Individuals can improve self-control by altering any one or more of these three processes, such as enhancing conflict detection and responsiveness in the monitoring system (brainwave signals manifest as higher error-related negative waves), improving the attention of the monitoring system, and thus causing an increase in self-control. Given that calligraphy practice requires overcoming habitual writing behaviours, monitoring changes in handwriting in real time, maintaining a high level of attention, and adjusting subsequent writing behaviours through feedback on writing results, calligraphy practice involves key elements highlighted in the strength model and cybernetics. Therefore, in this research we explore the relationship between calligraphy practice and self-control based on the strength model and cybernetics of self-control.

Many studies have shown evidence supporting the positive mind–body effects of calligraphy practice, such as increasing cognitive function (Chu et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2022), improving emotional states (Kao et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2013), and alleviating behavioural problems (Fung et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2010). These studies suggest that calligraphy practice could improve self-control. Li et al. (2017) conducted a 6-month calligraphy practice intervention with one Chinese national team athlete, and they combined the results of qualitative and quantitative analyses to show that the athlete had a better ability to control thoughts, a better ability to cope with adversity, and exhibited good self-control in the Olympic competition after the calligraphy training. Based on fMRI or EEG results, researchers have found stronger neural network function in the frontal, parietal and basal ganglia in calligraphy practitioners than in those without calligraphy experience (Chen et al., 2019), greater theta wave amplitude in the frontal midline region (Fung et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2013), and greater P300 wave amplitude (Wang, 2018). Chen et al. (2017) measured 36 subjects with at least five years of calligraphy experience and 50 subjects with little or no calligraphy experience on an executive function task and collected participants’ resting-state functional connectivity on fMRI and found that the calligraphy-experienced group showed better refreshment and inhibition, as well as stronger resting-state functional connectivity. Through correlation analysis, Kao et al. (2021) found that the longer the participants practiced calligraphy, the greater their emotional stability, dutifulness, self-sufficiency, learning ability and control; these results were due to the Confucianism covered in calligraphy. In a randomized controlled trial, Chan et al. (2017) administered an eight-week calligraphy practice intervention to older adults with mild cognitive impairment and found a significant improvement in working memory and attentional control in the calligraphy practice group compared to the control group (learning to use a tablet).

In addition to the studies related to self-control, some scholars have concluded that calligraphy practice can enhance positive feelings and alleviate negative emotions (Chu et al., 2018; Kao, 2010; Li, 2021; Zhou et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2014), and that calligraphy practice is an effective approach to stress reduction (Kao et al., 2014). Considering that athletes are often faced with high-pressure competitive scenarios, the practice of calligraphy would be of greater practical value if it could benefit the mood state and emotional regulation of Chinese athletes.

Gaps in the literature

Previous studies indicate that calligraphy practice may enhance practitioners’ self-control and improve practitioners’ emotional state. However, there are still some limitations. First, most studies have focused on the field of psychotherapy, and the subjects are mainly patients rather than athletes. Chinese athletes in the national system have their own special characteristics. On the one hand, their daily life is rather monotonous and relatively confined, and they need to practice their sports at painfully high intensities. Calligraphy practice might not only play cultural and educational roles in enriching athletes’ training life but also play a role in psychological regulation. On the other hand, compared to other programmed Western psychological skills training methods, the traditional cultural factors of calligraphy practice are more likely to resonate with and be recognized by Chinese athletes, therefore it could be more acceptable to them. Second, the small sample sizes of most studies led to insufficient statistical validity, and there is a lack of randomized controlled experiments in this research area. Finally, most studies focus on longitudinal calligraphy interventions, and there is a lack of focus on the effects of one-time calligraphy practice, while one-time interventions are cost-effective and have promising applications.

The present research

To address the abovementioned shortcomings, considering the lack of RCTs exploring the causal relationship between calligraphy practice and self-control among Chinese athletes, the present research aims to answer the following three scientific questions through two parallel experiments:

1. Does one-time calligraphy practice improve Chinese athletes’ self-control?

2. Does calligraphy practice have a greater effect on persistent self-control or inhibitory self-control?

3. Does calligraphy practice improve Chinese athletes’ emotional state?

Based on the strength model of self-control and cybernetics, two experiments were conducted. Experiment 1 explored the impact of Chinese calligraphy practice on Chinese athletes’ persistent self-control, and Experiment 2 explored the impact of Chinese calligraphy practice on Chinese athletes’ inhibitory self-control. Both experiments investigated the effect of calligraphy practice on Chinese athletes’ emotional states (positive emotions, fatigue, and vigor). Based on evidence from previous studies, we hypothesized that the calligraphy practice group would show better persistent self-control ability (H1a) and emotional state (H1b) than the control group and that the calligraphy practice group would show better inhibitory self-control ability (H2a) and emotional state (H2b) than the control group. Hypotheses 1a and 1b are tested in experiment 1, and Hypotheses 2a and 2b are tested in experiment 2.

Method

Study design

A two-factor mixed 2 (calligraphy practice: practice, no practice) × 2 (measurement order: pre – and posttest) study design was used for Experiments 1 and 2, with the between-group independent variable being calligraphy practice and the within-group independent variable being measurement order. The main dependent variable of Experiment 1 was persistent self-control, assessed using behavioural and physiological indicators. The behavioural indicator was the wall-sit performance time, and the physiological indicator was the heart rate variability index, which is calculated as the root mean square of successive differences between normal heartbeats (RMSSD) and high frequency (HF). The main dependent variable of Experiment 2 was inhibitory self-control, which was also assessed using behavioural and physiological indicators. The behavioural indicators were performance of Reaction Training Lamp task, including response time (RT), proportion of correct responses (PC) and inverse efficiency index (the inverse efficiency score = RT/PC, IES). The physiological indicator was heart rate variability index (specifically, RMSSD and HF). The other dependent variable in Experiments 1 and 2 was emotion, which included three self-reported indicators (i.e., positive emotion, fatigue, and vigor) and two physiological indicators (i.e., skin conductivity and skin temperature).

Sampling and participants

G * Power was used to calculate the required sample size for a two-factor mixed experimental design (f = 0.25, α = 0.05, and power = 0.80). A total of 98 participants were required (Faul et al., 2007). One hundred and six participants were ultimately recruited for Experiment 1 (aged 20.11 ± 1.12 years, 62 males and 44 females), including 53 in the calligraphy group and 53 in the control group. One hundred and one participants were ultimately recruited for Experiment 2 (aged 20.50 ± 0.97 years, 67 males and 34 females), including 51 in the calligraphy group and 50 in the control group. All participants were Chinese collegiate athletes (who are competing in school-level or above) with no calligraphy experience who were right-handed and had normal visual acuity or corrected visual acuity. All participants received credit for the corresponding course and monetary compensation for completing the experiment.

Measurements and apparatus

Wall-sit task (Experiment 1). The wall-sit task measures the motor control of an individual’s persistent self-control (Boat & Taylor, 2017; Li & Zhang, 2020). This task requires participants to hold their head, back and hips against the wall, feet on the ground while keeping their feet spread shoulder-width apart, keeping their hands expanded on both sides of the torso, keeping their legs bent to keep the thighs parallel to the ground, and maintaining an angle of 90 degrees between the thighs and the calves. The participants’ task persistence time was recorded. This task is ostensibly a measure of quadriceps endurance, but when individuals maintain this position, they quickly experience muscle soreness and fatigue and need to utilize self-control resources to overcome the urge to give up if they want to continue to persist for a longer time. Therefore, the purpose of the wall-sit task is rather covert, and the persistence time reflects persistent self-control (Yun et al., 2023).

Reaction training lamp task (Experiment 2). The reaction training lamp task measures motor control of an individual's inhibitory self-control. This task required the participant to react or suppress a response to the target as instructed while taking small steps in place. The formal task lasted 3 minutes. The hardware device used for the task implementation is the Reaction Training Lamp, the software device is the Reaction X application, and “Color and Text” in the “Command” module is selected. This module is similar to the traditional Stroop task, where the participant has to reach up and turn off one of the four randomly lit target lamps on his or her chest according to the instructions on the screen in front of him or her (at eye level). A total of six random colors will appear: red, yellow, green, blue, purple, and cyan. There are two situations randomly presented on the screen, “background color only” and “background color and text”. When only the background color is presented on the screen, the lamp of the color shown in the background should be turned off. When both the background color and text are presented on the screen, the background color should be ignored, and the corresponding lamp should be turned off according to the meaning of the text. Participants’ reaction time and proportion of correct responses will be recorded.

Electrocardiogram recorder. The ECG recorder, model DEG-01-S from Msens, was used to monitor the dynamic ECG of the human body during daily and cardiac rehabilitation training and consists of a sensor and a heart rate belt, which is worn close to the skin just below the glabella of the participant's chest. It was used in both experiments herein to monitor the physiological indicators of participants’ self-control, i.e., their heart rate variability index (specifically RMSSD and HF).

Physiological signal acquisition wristwatch. The physiological signal acquisition wristwatch, model EMP-S1 from Ruier Naokang (Beijing) Technology, is a wristband biosignal acquisition sensor that collects skin conductivity, skin temperature, and six-axis acceleration data from the wrist in real time and is used in both experiments of this research to capture the skin conductivity changes and skin temperature levels of participants.

Positive emotion. Both experiments use a one-item visual analog scale to measure positive emotion with the question “How pleasant are you right now?” (1 = very unpleasant, 10 = very pleasant).

Fatigue and vigor. Both experiments measure athletes’ fatigue and vigor using two subscales of the revised Profile of Mood States by Zhu (1995), which is commonly used to assess athletes’ mood state. The items are adjectives describing the mood states, and athletes need to choose the option that best fits their situation based on how they are feeling in the moment. The scale is a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). The fatigue dimension assesses 5 mood states (listless, fatigued, exhausted, worn out, weary), and the vigor dimension assesses 6 mood states (cheerful, vigorous, active, lively, energetic, carefree).

Procedures

Participants were informed about the relevant experimental tasks and basic procedures and signed an informed consent form before the experiment, and each participant completed the experimental tasks individually. The procedure of the formal experiment consisted of the following four processes: instrument wear, baseline assessment, experimental intervention, and final assessment.

Instrument wear. The wristwatch was placed on the participant’s left wrist, and the ECG recorder was placed under the chest.

Baseline assessment. Participants were asked to complete a pretest to assess self-control (wall-sit task in experiment 1 and reaction training lamp task in experiment 2) and emotions (positive emotion, fatigue, and vigor). In the wall-sit task of experiment 1, participants were asked to hold the movement as long as possible, and the participant’s persistence time was recorded. In the reaction training lamp task of experiment 2, participants were required to respond to the target lamp as quickly and accurately as possible, and their RT and PC were recorded.

Experimental intervention. The calligraphy practice group completed a 20-minute practice that was guided by the video; the control group was asked to sit quietly and read a geography magazine for 20 minutes. The skin conductivity and skin temperature of the calligraphy and control groups were recorded during the experimental intervention.

Final assessment. Finally, participants were asked to complete a posttest assessment of self-control (wall-sit task in experiment 1 and reaction training lamp task in experiment 2) and emotion (positive emotion, fatigue, and vigor). Similar to the baseline assessment, the participant’s persistence time (experiment 1) or RT and PC (experiment 2) was recorded.

Results

Experiment 1: the impact of Chinese calligraphy practices on Chinese athletes’ persistent self-control

DV-persistent self-control. A repeated-measures ANOVA with a 2 (calligraphy practice) × 2 (measurement order) design was conducted on the behavioural indicator of persistent self-control, which was wall-sit performance time. Descriptive statistics results are shown in Table 1. The interaction effect between measurement order and calligraphy practice was found to be statistically significant, F(1, 104) = 22.941, p < .001, η_p² = .181. A further simple effect analysis revealed that in the pretest, the calligraphy group (M = 102.15, SD = 46.84) had a marginally significantly lower persistence time than the control group (M = 122.36, SD = 68.39), F(1, 104) = 3.150, p = .079, η_p² = .029; in the posttest, the difference between the calligraphy group (M = 131.98, SD = 62.93) and the control group (M = 113.17, SD = 62.31) was not statistically significant, F(1, 104) = 2.391, p = .125, η_p² = .022 (Figure 1A). We found that the main effect of measurement order was significant, F(1, 104) = 6.420, p = .013, η_p² = .058; the main effect of calligraphy practice was not significant.

Figure 1 . The Impact of Calligraphy Practice on Athletes’ Persistent Self-control.

Note. Significant difference between groups is indicated by # and significant effects are indicated by *. Error bars represent ± 1 SE.

Table 1 . Descriptive statistics of athletes’ persistent self-control (M ± SD).

	Calligraphy Group (n = 53)		Control Group (n = 53)
Indicators	Pre-test	Post-test	Pre-test	Post-test
Persistence time (s)	102.15 ± 46.84	131.98 ± 62.93	122.36 ± 68.39	113.17 ± 62.31
RMSSD (ms)	65.40 ± 35.76		64.59 ± 40.70
HF (ms)	316.81 ± 408.24 (n = 47)		302.67 ± 360.77 (n = 48)

To test the intervention effect, an independent samples t test was conducted with the change (calculating post values – pre values) in wall-sit performance time as the dependent variable and calligraphy practice (practice, no practice) as the independent variable. The results revealed a significant difference between the calligraphy group and control group (see Figure 2B), t(104) = 4.790, p < .001, 95% CI [22.86, 55.17], Cohen’s d = 0.93, and the change in persistence time was significantly higher in the calligraphy group (M = 29.83, SD = 35.62) than in the control group (M = −9.19, SD = 47.42). The results supported H1a.

Figure 2 . The Impact of Calligraphy Practice on Athletes’ Emotion.

Note. Significant difference between groups is indicated by # and significant effects are indicated by *. Error bars represent ± 1 SE.

An independent samples t test with calligraphy practice (practice, no practice) as the independent variable and the physiological indicators RMSSD and HF as the dependent variables did not reveal significant differences between the calligraphy practice group and the control group. The results of physiological indicators did not support H1a.

DV-emotion. To further explore the psychological benefits of calligraphy practice, we monitored athletes’ emotional physiological indicators (skin conductivity, skin temperature) during the intervention in both experiments and measured positive emotion and mood state (fatigue, vigor) before and after the intervention. Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 . Descriptive statistics of athletes’ emotions (M ± SD).

	Calligraphy Group (n = 53)		Control Group (n = 53)
Indicators	Pre-test	Post-test	Pre-test	Post-test
Positive emotion	7.32 ± 1.48	7.89 ± 1.27	7.74 ± 1.53	7.15 ± 1.32
Fatigue	2.00 ± 0.72	1.53 ± 0.60	1.80 ± 0.66	1.88 ± 0.75
Vigor	3.36 ± 0.87	3.46 ± 0.87	3.36 ± 0.69	3.03 ± 0.82
SC (μS)	3.58 ± 1.34(n = 52)		3.19 ± 1.63
ST (℃)	33.32 ± 4.76(n = 52)		33.55 ± 0.73

Note. SC = Skin conductivity; ST = Skin Temperature.

Using SPSS 27.0, a 2 (calligraphy practice) × 2 (measurement time) repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted with calligraphy practice (practice, no practice) as the between-group independent variable, measurement order (pretest, posttest) as the within-group independent variable, and self-reported indicators, positive emotion, fatigue, and vigor as the dependent variables.

For positive emotion scores, the interaction between measurement order and calligraphy practice was significant, F(1, 104) = 19.853, p < .001, η_p² = .160, and further simple effects analysis revealed that positive emotion scores in the calligraphy group (M = 7.32, SD = 1.48) were not significantly different from those in the control group (M = 7.74, SD = 1.53) in the pretest, F(1, 104) = 2.013, p = .159, η_p² = .019. In the posttest, the positive affect score was significantly higher in the calligraphy group (M = 7.89, SD = 1.27) than in the control group (M = 7.15, SD = 1.32), F(1, 104) = 8.571, p = .004, η_p² = .076 (Figure 2A). The main effects of measurement order and calligraphy practice were nonsignificant.

For fatigue scores, the interaction between measurement order and calligraphy practice was significant, F(1,104) = 17.503, p < .001, η_p² = .144, and further simple effects analysis revealed that the fatigue scores of the calligraphy group (M = 2.00, SD = 0.72) were not significantly different from those of the control group (M = 1.88, SD = 0.75) in the pretest, F(1, 104) = 2.390, p = .125, η_p² = .022. In the posttest, fatigue scores were significantly lower in the calligraphy group (M = 1.53, SD = 0.60) than in the control group (M = 1.80, SD = 0.66), F(1, 104) = 6.803, p = .010, η_p² = .061 (Figure 2B). There was a significant main effect of measurement order, F(1, 104) = 8.881, p = .004, η_p² = .079; the main effect of calligraphy practice was not significant.

For vigor scores, the interaction between measurement order and calligraphy practice was significant, F(1, 104) = 10.806, p = .001, η_p² = .094, and further simple effects analysis revealed that vigor scores of the calligraphy group (M = 3.36, SD = 0.82) were not significantly different from those of the control group (M = 3.36, SD = 0.69) in the pretest. In the posttest, the vigor scores of the calligraphy group (M = 3.46, SD = 0.87) were significantly higher than those of the control group (M = 3.03, SD = 0.87), F(1, 104) = 6.803, p = .010, η_p² = .061 (Figure 2C). The main effects of measurement order and calligraphy practice were nonsignificant.

To test the intervention effects, independent samples t tests were conducted with the change in positive emotion, fatigue, and vigor (post–pre) as dependent variables and calligraphy practice (practice, no practice) as the independent variable, and all differences between groups were found to be statistically significant (see Figure 3D, E and F). The change in positive emotion was significantly higher in the calligraphy group (M = 0.57, SD = 1.26) than in the control group (M = −0.58, SD = 1.39), t(104) = 4.456, p < .001, 95% CI [0.64, 1.66], Cohen’s d = 0.87. The change in fatigue absolute value was significantly higher in the calligraphy group (M = −0.47, SD = 0.60) than in the control group (M = 0.08, SD = 0.75), t(104) = −4.184, p < 0.001, 95% CI [−0.81, – 0.29], Cohen’s d = −0.81. Regarding the change in vigor, the calligraphy group (M = 0.10, SD = 0.72) was significantly higher than the control group (M = −0.34, SD = 0.66), t(104) = 3.287, p = 0.001, 95% CI [0.18, 0.71], Cohen’s d = 0.64. These results supported H1b.

Figure 3 . The Impact of Calligraphy Practice on Athletes’ Inhibitory Self-control.

Note. Significant difference between groups is indicated by # and significant effects are indicated by *. Error bars represent ± 1 SE.

Using skin conductivity and skin temperature as dependent variables and calligraphy practice (practice, no practice) as an independent variable, an independent samples t test was performed, and it was found that there was no significant difference between the calligraphy group and the control group on either of the 2 indicators.

Experiment 2: the impact of Chinese calligraphy practices on Chinese athletes’ inhibitory self-control

DV-inhibitory self-control. Using SPSS 27.0, a repeated-measures ANOVA with a 2 (calligraphy practice) × 2 (measurement order) design was conducted with the RT, PC, and IES of behavioural indicators as dependent variables, calligraphy practice (practice, no practice) as a between-group independent variable, and measurement order (pretest, posttest) as a within-group independent variable. Descriptive statistics are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 . Descriptive statistics of athletes’ inhibitory self-control (M ± SD).

	Calligraphy Group (n = 51)		Control Group (n = 50)
Indicators	Pre-test	Post-test	Pre-test	Post-test
Reaction training lamp task
PC	0.90 ± 0.05	0.94 ± 0.04	0.89 ± 0.06	0.91 ± 0.06
RT (s)	0.96 ± 0.09	0.91 ± 0.09	0.94 ± 0.10	0.91 ± 0.11
IES	1.07 ± 0.14	0.96 ± 0.11	1.07 ± 0.15	1.00 ± 0.14
RMSSD (ms)	75.31 ± 51.37 (n = 51)		61.52 ± 43.29 (n = 49)
HF (ms)	330.49 ± 417.40 (n = 41)		203.96 ± 181.54 (n = 42)

Note. RT = reaction time; PC = proportion of correct responses; IES = inverse efficiency score.

For PC, we found a marginally significant interaction effect between measurement order and calligraphy practice, F(1, 99) = 3.818, p = .054, η_p² = .037, and further simple effects analysis found that the PC of the calligraphy group (M = 0.90, SD = 0.05) was not significantly different from that of the control group (M = 0.89, SD = 0.06) in the pretest, F(1, 99) = 2.055, p = .155, η_p² = .020. In the posttest, PC was significantly higher in the calligraphy group (M = 0.94, SD = 0.04) than in the control group (M = 0.91, SD = 0.06), F(1, 99) = 13.588, p < .001, η_p² = .121 (Figure 3A). The main effect of measurement order was significant, F(1, 99) = 47.810, p < .001, η_p² = .326, and the main effect of calligraphy practice was significant, F(1, 99) = 7.993, p = .006, η_p² = .075.

For RT, we found a significant main effect of measurement order, F(1, 99) = 59.572, p < .001, η_p² = .376. The main effect of calligraphy practice and the interaction between measurement time and calligraphy practice were not significant (see Figure 3B).

For IES scores, we found a marginally significant interaction between measurement order and calligraphy practice, F(1, 99) = 3.501, p = .064, η_p² = .034. Further simple effects analysis found that IES scores for the calligraphy group (M = 1.07, SD = 0.14) were not significantly different from the control group (M = 1.07, SD = 0.15) in the pretest, F(1, 99) = 0.042, p = .839, η_p² < .001. In the posttest, IES scores in the calligraphy group (M = 0.96, SD = 0.11) were not significantly different from those in the control group (M = 1.00, SD = 0.14), F(1, 99) = 2.545, p = .114, η_p² = .025. There was a significant main effect of measurement time for IES, F(1, 99) = 94.565, p < .001, η_p² = .489 (Figure 3C). The main effect of calligraphy practice was not significant.

To test the intervention effects, independent samples t tests were conducted with the change in PC, RT and IES (post–pre) as dependent variables and calligraphy practice (practice, no practice) as the independent variable. The results are shown in Figure 3D, E, and F. The results revealed that the change in PC was higher in the calligraphy group (M = 0.04, SD = 0.05) than in the control group (M = 0.02, SD = 0.05), which was marginally significant, t(99) = 1.954, p = .054, Cohen’s d = 0.39. The change in RT was not significantly different between the calligraphy group (M = −0.05, SD = 0.05) and the control group (M = −0.04, SD = .06). The absolute change in IES value in the calligraphy group (M = −0.10, SD = 0.09) was higher than that in the control group (M = −0.07, SD = 0.09), and this difference was also marginally significant, t(99) = −1.871, p = 0.064, Cohen’s d = −0.37. These results partially supported H2a.

An independent samples t test was performed with the physiological indicators RMSSD and HF as dependent variables and calligraphy practice (practice, no practice) as an independent variable. We found a marginally significant difference between the calligraphy practice group (M = 330.49, SD = 417.40) and the control group (M = 203.96, SD = 181.54) on the HF index, p = 0.80, Cohen’s d = 0.395, t(54.329) = 1.783, 95% CI [−15.70, 268.76]; the difference in RMSSD values of the two groups was not statistically significant.

DV-emotion. As in Experiment 1, we also monitored participants’ physiological indicators of emotion (skin conductivity, skin temperature) during the intervention in Experiment 2 and measured the self-reported positive emotion and mood states (fatigue, vigor) before and after the intervention. Descriptive statistics are shown in Table 4.

Table 4 . Descriptive statistics of athletes’ emotion (M ± SD).

	Calligraphy Group (n = 51)		Control Group (n = 50)
Indicators	Pre-test	Post-test	Indicators	Pre-test
Positive emotion	7.02 ± 1.46	6.96 ± 1.52	6.64 ± 1.38	6.74 ± 1.58
Fatigue	2.02 ± 0.61	1.80 ± 0.67	2.02 ± 0.75	1.98 ± 0.78
Vigor	3.29 ± 0.74	3.41 ± 0.89	3.19 ± 0.81	3.00 ± 0.77
SC (μS)	3.51 ± 1.32		3.70 ± 1.40
ST (℃)	33.48 ± 1.00		33.46 ± 0.88

Note. SC = Skin conductivity; ST = Skin Temperature.

Using SPSS 27.0, a 2 (calligraphy practice) × 2 (measurement order) repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted with calligraphy practice (practice, no practice) as the between-group independent variable, positive emotion, fatigue, and vigor as the dependent variables, and measurement order (pretest, posttest) as the within-group independent variable.

For positive emotion scores, the main effects of measurement order and calligraphy practice and the interaction between measurement order and calligraphy practice were not significant.

For fatigue scores, the main effect of measurement order was marginally significant, F(1, 99) = 3.168, p = .078, η_p² = .031; the main effect of calligraphy practice and the interaction between measurement order and calligraphy practice were not significant.

For vigor scores, the interaction between measurement order and calligraphy practice was significant, F(1, 99) = 4.798, p = .031, η_p² = .046. Simple effects analysis found no significant difference between the calligraphy group (M = 3.29, SD = 0.74) and the control group (M = 3.19, SD = 0.81) in the pretest. In the posttest, the calligraphy group (M = 3.41, SD = 0.89) had a significantly higher vitality score than the control group (M = 3.00, SD = 0.77), F(1, 99) = 6.068, p = .015, η_p² = .058. The main effect of calligraphy practice and the main effect of measurement order were not significant. This result was consistent with experiment 1.

An independent samples t test was conducted with calligraphy practice (practice, no practice) as the independent variable and skin conductivity and skin temperature as the dependent variables, and it was found that there was no significant difference between the calligraphy practice group and the control group on both indicators.

Discussion

The impact of Chinese calligraphy practice on Chinese athletes’ self-control

The present study differentiated the effect of calligraphy practice on different types of self-control based on a more refined self-control classification framework proposed by Zhang and Zhang (2017). Experiments 1 and 2 were developed in parallel to explore the effects of calligraphy practice on Chinese athletes’ persistent and inhibitory self-control, respectively. Second, we took into account the characteristics of previous studies that examined the psychological effects of calligraphy interventions (Chu et al., 2018; Li et al., 2009; Ma & Fei, 2022), and we thus designed a more strictly controlled calligraphy intervention protocol (e.g., removing the effects of interpersonal interaction of the pedagogue and the effects of textual meaning) in an attempt to detect the effects of calligraphy practice on Chinese athletes’ self-control.

The results of persistence time in experiment 1 supported H1a, indicating that the calligraphy practice group showed greater improvement in persistent self-control than the control group. From the three indicators in experiment 2, only on PC and IES, the results supported hypothesis 2, indicating that the calligraphy practice group showed better inhibitory self-control than the control group. These results provide evidence to support the strength model of self-control, suggesting that self-control can be improved through control practice (specifically, overcoming habitual dominance behaviours) in the same or different domains (Baumeister & Tice, 2007). Athletes who are new to brush calligraphy need to maintain a high level of concentration, overcome their existing hard-penning habits, and control the strength, speed, and angle of the brush to ensure that they copy with greater resemblance to the original post. This mobilization of self-control resources to exercise self-control increased athletes’ persistent and inhibitory self-control. The finding that calligraphy practice has a positive effect on self-control is consistent with previous studies (Chen et al., 2017; Li et al., 2017), and the present research also broadened and enhanced the robustness of the research evidence in the form of quantitative causal experiments.

Regarding the question of which type of self-control is more affected by calligraphy practice, the combined results of experiments 1 and 2 revealed that the effect of calligraphy practice in enhancing persistent self-control (η_p² = .181) was greater than that of inhibitory self-control (η_p² = .037). There are two possible explanations for this observation. On the one hand, in the wall-sit task, participants need to persevere despite the soreness of their legs and ignore the desire to give up, and hold on for a longer time, thus leading to a state of energy depletion. This state could evoke a greater effect of calligraphy practice due to the need to replenish and restore self-control resources. In other words, in a situation of energy deficit, calligraphy practice could have a greater gaining effect. This finding is in line with previous studies applying calligraphy interventions to high-stress populations, those suffering from stress disorders, and people with other medical conditions (Kao et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2014). On the other hand, for the performance of the reaction training lamp task in experiment 2, both the calligraphy and control groups had better posttest performance than pretest performance, suggesting the possibility of a practice effect. The reason for this may lie in the original setting of the task; if an athlete provided an incorrect response, the lamps would be delayed slightly longer than in the correct response trial, which is equivalent to giving the athlete a correct or incorrect result feedback that will be more favourable for their subsequent trials. Therefore, researchers should be cautious in selecting dependent variable tasks, and in the future, calligraphy interventions could be extended to other domain populations and long-term high-pressure populations such as sports teams, militaries, or hospitals.

Integrating the results of HRV indicators of self-control in Experiments 1 and 2, we only found marginally significantly higher HF values in the calligraphy group than in the control group in experiment 2, which suggests that practicing calligraphy leads to increased activity of the parasympathetic nervous system, thus evoking a relaxed state and reflecting a stronger level of self-regulation (Park et al., 2013; Reynard et al., 2011; Segerstrom & Solberg Nes, 2007). However, we admit that this result is not very robust. In this regard, there is some controversy in the academic community about the use of RMSSD and HF to reflect self-control (Holzman & Bridgett, 2017; Zahn et al., 2016). Although both parameters reflect parasympathetic nervous system activity, RMSSD is more reliable over a 24-hour period (Forte et al., 2019; Hao, 2008); HF was depleted in data volumes in two experiments, but it can be seen in the descriptive statistics that HF values were higher in the calligraphy group than in the control group, and perhaps increasing the sample size in the future could reveal an effect.

Since calligraphy practice enhances self-control, what are its psychological mechanisms? This is an inevitable question in intervention studies. First, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between calligraphy practice and self-control with strictly controlled RCTs. Then, follow-up studies should be conducted to explore the mechanism, which still needs a more fruitful literature base and research evidence. Nevertheless, the following speculations can still be made. The process model of self-control (Inzlicht et al., 2014; Inzlicht & Schmeichel, 2012) posits that the restoration or increase in self-control may be due to a shift in the individual’s attention or motivation. In calligraphy practice, athletes need to be highly focused on the task at hand when operating the brush to copy strokes. This shift in attention helps the athlete to detach from the daily dull monotony and even high stress and to take advantage of the softness of the brush and the calming nature of calligraphy practice, which in turn serves to restore self-control. In addition, after the experiment, we received feedback from several athletes that “before coming, there were a lot of things in my mind and I was very anxious because of the training, but after practicing calligraphy I felt much clearer and more relaxed”. This general feeling from the practitioners may provide additional support for the speculation. Another speculation is that the effect may be due to the neurological activity of the brain during calligraphy. Some studies have shown that calligraphy practice produces frontal midline theta waves similar to meditation, and long-term calligraphy practitioners have stronger resting state connectivity and a smaller posterior cingulate cortex and right precuneus (Chen et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2019; Ma & Fei, 2022). Therefore, in future studies, attempts should be made to explore the role of attention and motivational switching, as well as to uncover the deeper reasons why calligraphy practice affects self-control in conjunction with brain neuroscience.

In summary, the positive effects of calligraphy practice on Chinese athletes’ self-control have been supported by the results of RCTs. Moreover, calligraphy practice is a way of cultivating the body and nurturing the mind by combining “skills” (self-control skill training) and “Tao” (dialectical philosophical view of self-control) (Zhang & Li, 2019), thus yielding a potential indigenous approach to self-control training that would have a unique effect among Chinese athletes. Future practice should consider designing more informative calligraphy intervention programs to maximize the beneficial effects of calligraphy practice on self-control.

The impact of Chinese calligraphy practice on Chinese athletes’ emotions

The results of calligraphy practice on the emotion and mood states of the Chinese athletes in this study indicate that calligraphy practice is effective at improving emotions, as evidenced by higher positive emotion scores and better mood states (reduced fatigue and increased vigor) after practicing calligraphy. This finding is consistent with previous studies exploring the psychological benefits of calligraphy interventions (Chu et al., 2018; Kao, 2010; Li, 2021; Zhou et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2014). However, we did not observe favourable evidence to support the overall slowdown of the skin temperature and skin conductivity in the cybernetic theory of calligraphy (Xu et al., 2013). We speculate that one reason may be that in this research, the mean values of skin conductivity and skin temperature of the participants during the intervention were collected, but we did not observe the trend of their changes. The second reason may be related to the setting of the control group. Both experiments required participants in the control group to sit quietly and read a magazine for 20 minutes, and the activity was relatively calm and quiet, thus making it difficult to demonstrate the unique effect of calligraphy practice on the physiological indicators.

In experiment 2, we detected a unique improvement in mood from calligraphy practice based on vigor scores, consistent with the results of experiment 1. However, we did not observe a facilitative or alleviating effect of calligraphy practice on positive emotion or fatigue, which may be related to the dependent variable task characteristics. The wall-sit task in experiment 1 required the athletes to hold on as long as possible, and the task was relatively boring; the reaction training task in experiment 2 required the Chinese athletes to respond as quickly and accurately as possible, and the task was much livelier and more interesting. The difference between the two tasks may have resulted in differential effects of the calligraphy exercise. Therefore, we have reason to believe that athletes experience more positive emotions, less fatigue, and higher levels of vitality during calligraphy practice and that calligraphy practice can be effectively applied in the future.

Limitations and directions for future research

First, the participants in this study were Chinese collegiate athletes, including both serving representative team athletes, who need to face the pressure of the season and intense training, as well as ordinary collegiate specialized athletes. Additionally, the athletic specialties varied, including both skill-based and fitness-based athletes. Therefore, the sample of Chinese athletes was somewhat heterogeneous. Future experiments with specific sports teams could be considered to determine whether the effects of calligraphy practice on self-control differ based on the type of athlete. Second, the control group in this study was the reading group, which was a blank control group. Positive control tasks such as Chinese painting, meditation, and mindfulness could be considered in the future to compare the effects of calligraphy to other interventions. Third, only two of the self-control categories, i.e., persistent and inhibitory self-control, were examined in this research. Given that previous studies have reported the effects of calligraphy on cognitive and attentional control, future studies should investigate the effects of calligraphy on cognitive control and attentional control. Fourth, this research only explored the causal effect of calligraphy practice on self-control but did not thoroughly explore the underlying psychological mechanisms. Future research should consider using neuroscience techniques to conduct more research on boundary mechanisms and mediating effects. Fifth, the content of the calligraphy practice in this research was meaningless neutral text, but the actual act of calligraphy often focuses on expressing emotion and meaning. Future research should explore whether performing calligraphy practice using texts with different levels of meaningfulness leads to differential psychological benefits. Lastly, it should be noted that the notion that calligraphy practice can cultivate the body and mind is deeply ingrained for the Chinese, and thus Chinese athletes in the calligraphy group may exhibit demanding characteristics. That is, compared to athletes in the reading group, athletes in the calligraphy group may spontaneously strive to present a better performance of the task to meet their own expectations. Therefore, future research could consider comparing the effects of calligraphy practice on athletes of different nationalities.

Conclusion

Based on the strength model of self-control and cybernetics, this research explored the effects of Chinese calligraphy practice on Chinese athletes’ self-control and emotion. Chinese calligraphy practice, which involves concentration and meditation as well as both skill training and Taoist ideas, can improve Chinese athletes’ self-control. Specifically, it is more effective in enhancing persistent self-control than inhibitory self-control. Moreover, calligraphy practice can lead to increased positive emotion, reduced fatigue, and boosted vigor for Chinese athletes. These findings enrich the reservoir of psychological training (self-control training) in sports and provides a new self-control intervention.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).