A consumerist turn in Dutch voluntary sport associations?

Abstract

This article focuses on the changing organizational arrangements within voluntary sport associations. It has often been suggested that members of sport associations are increasingly adopting consumerist attitudes towards these organizations, in which they might become less emotionally committed to the association and consequently might be less inclined to volunteer. Although it is still contested whether there is actually an increasing consumerist attitude among members, national sport organisations pressure associations to become more flexible and service-oriented. However, it is yet unknown whether these associations are indeed changing their membership arrangements into more customer oriented arrangements in response to this pressure. Using a two-wave dataset from the Survey of Dutch Voluntary Sport Associations (N = 337), we researched whether voluntary sport associations are adapting practices to a supposed consumerist attitude among members and what the possible consequences of such a shift are for the involvement and commitment of members in these organisations. Our findings suggest that there is no evidence of an increasing number of voluntary sport associations becoming more flexible and service-oriented in their membership arrangements. Moreover, we did not find support for a negative effect of consumerist forms of membership on formal involvement and emotional commitment in the associations that have adapted their membership arrangements. We therefore conclude that there is yet no evidence for an actual consumerist turn in voluntary sport associations.

Keywords:

• Commitment
• consumerism
• volunteerism
• voluntary sport associations

Introduction

In the second half of the nineteenth century, self-organized voluntary sport associations¹ with a non-profit character started to develop in many countries. Until that time, sport and sport-like pastimes had been organized in other, often more commercial, and settings. However, since the international standardization of sport in the beginning of the twentieth century, voluntary associations have been the dominant form in which sport activities have been organized (Van Bottenburg, 2001). Since then, these organizations have steadily gained popularity and have become deeply rooted in sport culture throughout Europe (Heinemann, 1999), but also in other countries such as South Korea, Australia and New Zealand (Hover, Romijn, & Breedveld, 2010). Voluntary sport associations are defined by providing sport activities to members in a local context at a grassroots level. One of the most important aspects of the voluntary sport association is the prohibition of distributing any financial rewards among the members (Enjolras, 2002; Knoke, 1986; Van Ingen, 2009). Furthermore, voluntary sport associations are, to a large extent, independent from state or market forces; power within these organizations is divided equally amongst its members through the use of a general assembly in which each member has voting rights (e.g. Enjolras, 2009; Heinemann, 1999; Ibsen & Seippel, 2010; Seippel, 2002; Smith, 2000; Thiel & Mayer, 2009; Wicker & Breuer, 2011). Finally, these associations rely on the voluntary participation of their members.

However, it has been suggested in recent years that the attitudes of members toward their sport associations are changing as a consequence of an increasing consumerist behaviour in sport participation (Bodet, 2009; Enjolras, 2002; Ibsen & Seippel, 2010) and an increasing demand for flexible sport provision (Pilgaard, 2012). These developments led Bodet (2012, p. 30) to the observation that there is a ‘mismatch between sport organizations’ traditional services and contemporary sport participants’ expectations’, which can lead to a call for voluntary sport associations to ‘soften up their tradition-bound ways of thinking’ (Pilgaard, 2012, p. 157). Ibsen and Seippel (2010, p. 605) describe these trends as the emergence of a ‘market logic’, which might be replacing an ‘association logic’. In the market logic people are considered to be consumers that pay a fee in return for a service that essentially is produced by others, in the association logic people see themselves as members of the collective that organizes the sport. This article deals with the question whether a change in logics as described by Ibsen and Seippel is indeed taking place in Dutch voluntary sport associations. We will use the term ‘consumer logic’ to describe the new organisational arrangements that Ibsen and Seippel describe, as this term underlines the shifting focus on individual consumers (cf. Van der Roest, Vermeulen, & Van Bottenburg, 2015).

Such a change is already reflected upon in policies formulated by national sport organizations regarding voluntary sport associations. Whereas calls for modernization and pressures from sport policies upon voluntary sport associations are not new (cf. Adams, 2011; Nichols et al., 2005), recent policies for e.g. in the Netherlands have increased the pressure on associations to adapt to a supposed consumerist attitude of current and potential members, underlining possibilities for improving the flexibility of sport associations’ activities (Van der Roest et al., 2015). This consumerist attitude is defined as one in which it is assumed that membership will give a member ‘access to a product, and that the balance between costs (membership fees) and outcomes will be in her favour’ (Lorentzen & Hustinx, 2007, p. 107).

However, little is known about the extent to which voluntary sport associations actually follow this advice and pressure and adjust their practices. In this article, our focus is on the change in the arrangements voluntary sport associations offer in order to react upon this supposed rise. Our research question therefore is: Are voluntary sport associations in the Netherlands changing their membership arrangements to adapt to a supposed rise of a consumerist attitude among members and potential members, and what are the consequences of such a shift for involvement in these associations? We will answer this question with two-wave data from 2007 and 2012 from the Survey of Dutch Voluntary Sport Associations, a longitudinal panel study that is conducted to evaluate the state of affairs in voluntary sport associations.

Theoretical framework

Marketization and commercialization have been important research issues in the nonprofit and voluntary sector (cf. Dart, 2004; Eikenberry & Kluver, 2004; Enjolras, 2002; Toepler, 2004; Williams, 2004), but so far little research has been concerned with the changes that are caused by the suggested emergence of a consumerist attitude amongst members and the consequences of such an attitude for people’s interests in participation in face-to-face civil society organizations (Lorentzen & Hustinx, 2007). This is striking, because a changing relationship between members and civil society organizations could have a big impact on the way civil society organizations operate and, as a possible consequence, also on levels of social capital that are produced within these organizations (cf. Putnam, 2000).

In order to research a consumerist turn in voluntary sport associations, it is important to clarify the changes that might arise at the organizational level from the emergence of the consumerist attitude. As stated in the introduction, our focus in this article is on changes on the organizational level, which means that we are not concerned with the question of whether there is actually an increasing consumerist attitude on the individual level of sport association members. We are investigating the changes at organizational level, regardless of whether they are to prepare for or react on a rise of consumerism amongst members. We do so by researching membership arrangements that flow from turning from an association logic towards a consumer logic. The consumerist turn is thus defined as a (re) conceptualisation of members as consumers within new organisational arrangements (i.e. the consumer logic) that give way for individual choice and increased individual control and voice options (cf. Clarke, Newman, Smith, Vidler, & Westmarland, 2007; Naidoo, Shankar, & Veer, 2011; Van der Roest et al., 2015).

In our theoretical framework, we will first discuss the principles of the association logic that is traditionally found within voluntary sport associations. We will then proceed to define the pressures on voluntary sport associations to reshape their activities, giving consideration to the ways in which these organizations might react to these pressures. We will conclude by discussing how new consumer logic within voluntary sport associations might affect the involvement and commitment of members.

Voluntary sport: the association logic

As was pointed out in the introduction, sport participation is organized in many countries in voluntary sport associations. These organizations follow association logic; a term introduced by Ibsen and Seippel (2010) to point out how voluntary sport in Denmark and Norway is organized. This term seems to be appropriate to describe the way voluntary sport associations function in general, although Ibsen and Seippel do not provide a set definition of the association logic. They do acknowledge that one of the most important characteristics of voluntary sport associations ‘is their democratic legal structure, meaning that associations act according to democratic principles and formal (written) rules’ (Ibsen & Seippel, 2010, p. 594), an observation that holds for most countries in which sport is primarily organized in voluntary organizations. However, an association logic probably also includes the way people behave in these face-to-face mutual support organizations (Handy, 1988), because social relations appear to be important for these associations as well. In order to evaluate a possible change in the nature of these organizations, it is important to further examine this type of organization.

First, a sound definition of association is needed in order to determine what organizations we refer to with this term. In everyday life, the term ‘voluntary sport association’ is sufficient, but for research purposes it has been suggested that a sharpening of the notion of ‘association’ would be beneficial (Van Ingen, 2009). Many definitions have been given since Cole (1920) introduced a workable definition of association (Van Ingen, 2009). As our focus is on voluntary sport associations, we have chosen to incorporate Smith’s (2000) definition of grassroots associations. We concur with Smith that the local scope of grassroots associations is one of the defining elements of these organizations. Smith’s definition points out that grassroots association are:

locally based, significantly autonomous, volunteer-run, formal nonprofit (i.e., voluntary) groups that manifest substantial voluntary altruism as groups and use the associational form of organization and, thus, have official memberships of volunteers who perform most, and often all, of the work/activity done in and by these nonprofits (2000, p. 7).

In order to get the work done in these organizations, voluntary sport associations have developed a strong culture in which it is ascertained that there are ‘club-specific norms and values include the view that voluntary support of club work is a matter of course and that supporting the work of the club is quite simply part of being a member of this interest community’ (Schlesinger, Egli, & Nagel, 2013, p. 36). This characteristic of supporting fellow members including yourself is common for mutual support or benefit organizations, including, for example, self-help organizations, collectors’ associations and amateur brass bands (Meijs & Ten Hoorn, 2008). It is the opposite of service delivery organizations where clients are not part of the organization such as in regular health care (Meijs & Ten Hoorn, 2008). It seems important for the survival of these associations that they have well-working recruitment and socialization processes amongst their membership. However, this also means that most associations have become self-selective and homogeneous to a large degree (Warren, 2001, p. 104).

An association logic, then, can be defined as a set of structures, norms and values within in an organization that enables the members of that organization to pursue a common interest and to manifest voluntary altruism. In general, these goals are obtained through participation in sporting activities, volunteering, social activities and events.

Departing from an association logic, it can be difficult to introduce a more open and consumerist way of providing services and organizing activities to (non-)members. As Warren (2001) noted, associations are quite monocultural, which might imply that there are hardly any internal incentives for these organizations to change. Moreover, a consumerist approach could exclude people with lower levels of economic, social and cultural capital, because they can have troubles coming along in organizations that have taken such an approach (cf. Clarke, et al., 2007). Yet the growing attention for the consumerist attitude in sport policies pressures these organizations to adjust their approach towards their members. In the next section, we will review the way academic literature and policy texts describe contemporary developments in voluntary sport associations and how these developments are linked to consumerism. In doing so, we show how the pressure to adjust to a consumerist attitude in voluntary sport associations is constructed.

Pressures on voluntary sport associations to change

In recent studies, there has been a group of authors who have suggested a shift among members of voluntary sport associations toward more consumerist attitudes because of societal developments like individualization and informalization. Among the first authors to note such a development was Enjolras (2002). In the concluding remarks of his article on the commercialization of voluntary sport associations, Enjolras stated that:

[voluntary sport associations] are vulnerable to any form of disengagement of their members (…). Further research efforts are needed to determine whether the contemporary social changes, and particularly the trend toward increased individualization, which may contribute to transforming members’ participative attitude into customer behaviour, do not gradually undermine the foundations of such a community-based economy. (Enjolras, 2002, p. 373)

This concern has been echoed in the years since Enjolras’ publication and is not restricted to the sport sector. Lorentzen and Hustinx (2007) noticed that the concept of member-consumer is emerging in the broader context of the civil society organisations. They define the member-consumer as ‘an individual who assumes membership will give her access to a product, and that the balance between costs (membership fees) and outcomes will be in her favour’ (Lorentzen & Hustinx, 2007, p. 107). As a result of this proposed shift, Lorentzen and Hustinx observe the emergence of a market in which associations need to compete with non-profit and for-profit actors. Ibsen and Seippel (2010, p. 605) share a similar observation in their understanding of the emergence of a market logic in voluntary sport, in which ‘financial calculations are replacing ideals and sporting objectives, and the people actively involved in sport are increasingly considered to be “customers” rather than “members”’.

In Dutch sport, ‘the idea that members (should) become clients or even customers is widely spread’ (Meijs & Ten Hoorn, 2008, p. 39). According to Meijs and Ten Hoorn, this has resulted in a normative pressure on voluntary sport associations to change their mutual support organisation towards a model of service delivery. Van der Roest et al. (2015) note that because sport participants are increasingly seen as consumers, national sport organizations are urging local voluntary sport associations to become more flexible and more service oriented. Yet, as a result of the above-mentioned pressures, voluntary sport associations might be expected to organize according to a consumer logic. In such a logic, associations increase the possibilities for flexibility by introducing short-term memberships that can easily be terminated and increase their service orientation by providing a number of non-sport related services. These features focus on the supply-side of consumerism, whereas another feature of consumerism might also be the increasing critical attitude that members have towards their sport organisation (cf. Van der Roest, 2015). Because our focus in this article is on the organisational features of consumerism, we will only consider the increasing flexibility and the non-sport related services that associations offer.

In sport sociology and sport management research, some authors have argued that voluntary sport associations indeed should make their activities more flexible. Bodet (2009) noted that the expectations of recreational sport consumers are urging sport providers to adapt their services into quickly consumable offerings, while Pilgaard’s (2012) dissertation is entirely devoted to the link between late-modern everyday life and the trend towards increasingly flexible sport participation. She concluded that voluntary sport associations should move in the direction of making their activities more flexible, but that they also need to stay true to their traditional values of offering a well-known social setting and a feeling of security.

However, criticism on instigating more flexibility and service orientation in voluntary sport associations is also heard. If voluntary sport associations indeed begin to offer flexible, short-term membership forms oriented towards service, for many associations this would mean a break with the way they have always functioned. The orientation toward service is quite alien to the spirit of mutual support that has traditionally characterized a majority of voluntary sport associations, although it must be noted that some associations already have a history of being more oriented towards service delivery (cf. Handy, 1988; Meijs, 1997). Yet, the consumerist focus towards activities that are best for individual members could be contrary to the ‘collective action’ that is needed to run voluntary sport associations (Enjolras, 2009).

Even though the precise consequences of consumerist membership arrangements for associations are yet unknown, little argument is required to show that these arrangements are aimed at fulfilling the needs of individual members rather than promoting reciprocity and solidarity within the association. This therefore raises the question of what these new organizational arrangements mean for the collective commitment of the members of voluntary sport associations towards these values. We do not necessarily expect an immediate collapse of associations, as they have proven to be resilient organisations that have their own mechanisms to cope with changes, and the diversity of associations in terms of mutual support and service delivery is already quite large. Still, a pressure on associations to quickly change their organisational arrangements could have its effect on the involvement and commitment of their members.

Involvement and commitment in voluntary sport associations

As voluntary sport associations are governed with a democratic decision-making structure (Seippel, 2002) and depend on the collective action earlier discussed in this paper, two basic forms of commitment to this type of associations are needed to run one successfully (cf. Thiel & Mayer, 2009). First, the democratic model requires that members be involved in formal decision-making processes. A certain number of members need to attend the annual general meeting to make official decisions about the association’s development, and the members need to take up several (leadership) volunteer tasks to keep the association running. Second, a certain amount of emotional or affective commitment is needed for people to retain their membership and for people to be willing to volunteer in a diverse set of functions for their association (Engelberg, Zakus, Skinner, & Campbell, 2012; Schlesinger et al., 2013).

The consumer-oriented organizational arrangements described in the previous section might not be the ideal conditions for inspiring members to become and stay involved in a voluntary sport association. As forms of membership become more flexible, it will be harder to socialize new members in associational life, simply because people are present at the association on different times. Furthermore, the new forms of membership will probably attract people who are looking for an easily accessible sport organization that carries no extra obligations next to paying a fee (cf. Bodet, 2009). This possibly means these members might be less inclined to be involved in democratic decision making processes and volunteering in the association (cf. Schlesinger et al., 2013).

The emotional or affective commitment in voluntary sport associations could also decrease as new forms of membership are introduced in these associations. When the membership forms in a sport association predominantly focus on satisfying the individuals' needs, it is harder to build a relationship with the other people in that association, because sporting objectives and ideals in the association are replaced by financial calculations (Ibsen & Seippel, 2010, p. 605).

Data and methods

Data source

The data in this article are derived from the Survey of Dutch Voluntary Sport Associations, performed by the second author. The survey has been performed on a yearly basis from 2000 and it provides Dutch researchers and policy makers with a plethora of information about voluntary sport associations. The survey deals with different topics, including the association’s management, finances and human resources. For this article, longitudinal data from the panel was used to evaluate the consequences of introducing ‘consumerist’ arrangements in voluntary sport associations. The first time in which useful questions on this topic were collected was in November and December 2007. In December 2012, the questionnaire was set out to repeat the measurements performed in 2007. This means the variables that are used in this article are based on the exact same questions asked in 2007 and in 2012.

In 2007, the questionnaire was sent to 1332 voluntary sport associations. The questionnaires were sent to board members, often the secretary of the association. 870 out of the 1332 completed the questionnaire, a response ratio of 65.3%. In 2012, the questionnaire was sent to 1156 associations and was completed by 493 associations, which resulted in a response ratio of 42.6%. The response ratio in 2007 was higher because we were able to send out more reminders and even made phone calls to non-participants that year. Because all associations within the panel hold a unique identifier, we were able to select a sample that completed the questionnaire both in 2007 and in 2012. In total, 337 associations completed both questionnaires. The average size of the voluntary sport associations in our sample was relatively stable, this being 277.14 members per association in 2007 and 270.95 in 2012. Because there was a slight overrepresentation of outdoor sport associations and team sport associations in our sample, we weighed our data according to the data in the databases of the Netherlands Olympic Committee (Nederlands Olympisch Comité * Nederlandse Sport Federatie [NOC*NSF], 2007; 2012).

It is worth noting that our sample has a few limitations. For voluntary sport associations a five-year period is a relatively short period of time. These organisations are quite resistant to big changes, especially when these changes involve investments in their infrastructure. However, it is a first endeavour to grasp the development of associations. Also, the fact that board members have filled out the questionnaire might influence the data. It is the question whether board members know their members well enough to answer on behalf of them, especially in the larger associations. In the questions where it comes to an evaluation of the situation of the association, it is questionable whether board members will give an accurate picture of their associations (cf. Seippel, 2002, p. 257). Still, the data provide longitudinal insights in the development of associations, which is quite unique in sport association research (cf. Wicker, Breuer, & Hennigs, 2012).

Operationalization and variables

As noted, the association survey consists of different elements to measure the situation of voluntary sport associations. Questions in the survey cover the following topics: facilities, members and activities, organization and management, volunteers, external support and finances. The background variables in the analyses include the association size in terms of the number of members, the age of the organization in years, single vs. (semi) team sport, large city index (for cities over 50,000 inhabitants), and the percentages for members in formal competitions and for the youth members in the organization. All of these are chosen on the basis of previous work on voluntary sport associations (cf. Enjolras, 2002; Ibsen & Seippel, 2010; Østerlund, 2013; Schlesinger et al., 2013; Seippel, 2002; Thiel & Mayer, 2009; Wicker, Breuer, Lamprecht, & Fischer, 2014). Because, this study relies on existing data, the operationalization of consumerism was not a straightforward process. We had to decide on which factors to include in our model. The independent and dependent variables, thus need a little further elaboration, are presented in the following section.

Single vs. (semi) team sport

A background variable that also needs further explication is the dummy variable for individual sports and team sports. Here, all sports that need at least two individuals to play were coded as team sports. Tennis, for example, is coded as a team sport, because a tennis match needs at least two players.

Consumerist membership forms

In order to measure the introduction of new, ‘consumerist’ membership forms, an index score was created. Because, we define these membership forms as flexible and service-oriented, we have included the questions measuring these indicators to the fullest extent possible. The questions in the questionnaire have been marked in a group session with two of the authors of this article and an independent expert as either measuring consumerism or not. Table 1 provides an overview of the ten items that were used in this index, with possible scores for each item being ‘0’ and ‘1’. The index contains a number of activities that measure flexibility, such as the introduction of flexible membership forms and the introduction of new forms of sport. It also offers an overview of services that are not directly related to the provision of sport activities to measure the service orientation of an association.

Table 1. Number of voluntary sport associations offering consumerist services.

			Percentage of associations offering service relative to size (2007 level)
	2007	2012	<100 members	100–250 members	>250 members
Gym	9	13	1.10	1.49	6.09
Student supervision	5	3	0.00	0.00	4.31
Office facilities (e.g. fax, internet)	12	19	0.00	3.03	8.62
Physiotherapist	26	31	0.00	1.52	22.41
Children’s day care centre	2	11	0.00	1.52	0.86
Work/homework/meeting facilities	15	19	0.00	0.00	13.04
Sports store	15	14	4.35	0.00	9.65
Total number of service-oriented activities	84	110
Activities for non-members	240	255	68.00	77.63	73.81
Introduction of new sports and play activities	174	154	40.16	58.11	64.29
Flexible forms of membership	176	145	44.26	58.67	62.30
Total number of flexible activities	590	554
N	337	337

The items presented in Table 1 are all the available services in the questionnaire that qualify as non-sport related services. We have chosen these services because the pressure on voluntary sport associations to widen their offers is one of the most important pressures that are part of the consumerist discourse. Associations are increasingly asked to compete with other organisations on the leisure market that have a wide offer (cf. Nichols et al., 2005; Van der Roest et al., 2015). This service orientation is of course more likely to be present in bigger associations. After all, some facilities are easier to establish for associations that have the means to do so. We, therefore have included an overview of the proportion of small, medium and large-sized associations that offer these services. The total index ranges from 0 (non-consumerist) to 10 (consumerist).

Turnout at annual general meeting

This variable is the percentage of members present at the annual general meeting of the association, as opposed to the total number of members. If an association scored ‘0’ in this variable, it was omitted from the sample for that particular question, because that association either has no annual general meeting or the meeting was not organized in the previous year for some reason.

Volunteer percentage

This variable is a percentage of volunteers in the association, as opposed to the total number of members. Percentages above 100% were omitted from the sample for this question.

Emotional commitment to the association

For this variable, a single proposition was stated: ‘The members of this association feel strongly committed to the association’. Respondents were able to rate this proposition on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Not at all) to 5 (Completely). As we have noted, the fact that the questionnaire is filled out by board members, might influence the data. For this particular variable, this might be more problematic than for the other, more objective, indicators. Board members could either misjudge the situation at their association, or they could present a more positive account of the members’ commitment to the outside world. Still, this question provides the only available data on the commitment of the members at this time, so we use the variable as an indicator of the members’ commitment. However, one should be cautious when this variable is interpreted.

Non-playing membership percentage

This variable is a percentage of non-playing members in the association, as opposed to the total number of members. Non-playing members are often people who are not involved (anymore) in sporting activities, but who are still member of the voluntary sport association. This can be seen as a sign of financial and emotional solidarity with the association.

Results

In this section, we present the empirical results that answer our research questions. We start with a comparison between the levels of consumerist forms of membership in 2007 and 2012 before shifting our attention to the consequences of introducing consumerist membership forms in voluntary sport associations. As our panel data permits us to see both the cross-sectional and the longitudinal consequences of having consumerist membership forms, all questions are answered with cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. First, Table 2 shows the development of relevant measures in our sample between 2007 and 2012. From this table, it appears the measures of consumerism and the size of the associations were relatively stable over the period 2007–2012, while the measures for emotional commitment and passive membership both increased significantly. This is an interesting outcome, given the pessimistic expectations of some authors regarding involvement and commitment in voluntary sport associations (cf. Ibsen & Seippel, 2010; Schlesinger et al., 2013).

Table 2. Changes in means for relevant variables between 2007 and 2012.

	2007	2012	N	t	df	p
Association size	284.45	280.63	327	.632	326	.528
Degree of consumerism in membership form	2.30	2.21	263	1.266	262	.207
Turnout at annual general meeting (%)	27.08	28.35	296	−1.883	295	.061
Members volunteering (%)	14.03	17.10	278	−2.314	277	.021
Emotional commitment	3.49	3.79	327	−6.571	326	.000
Non-playing memberships (%)	8.64	14.25	290	−5.913	289	.000

Membership forms

Based on supposed societal developments like individualization and informalization and the pressure on voluntary sport associations that has been mentioned in this article, it might be expected that an increasing number of voluntary sport associations will offer short-term, flexible membership forms with a clear price-quality ratio. We took this expectation into account by measuring the levels of ‘consumerist forms of membership’ on a zero-to-ten index score, as shown in the previous section. As reported in Table 1, the number of associations with a service orientation slightly grew over the years between 2007 and 2012. However, the number of associations with flexible activities dropped. To answer our first research question, we tested the level of ‘consumerist forms of membership’ in 2007 and in 2012. A paired samples t-test was conducted to compare the level of consumerist forms of membership in 2007 and in 2012. We found no significant difference in the scores for 2007 and 2012 (see Table 2), which means that, contrary to our expectation; the number of voluntary sport associations with consumerist membership forms did not grow.

Even though the level of consumerist membership forms did not rise, it is still interesting to see what consequences these forms could have for individual associations. Therefore, we shift our attention to the consequences for formal involvement in voluntary sport associations, as formulated in the second part of our research question.

Formal involvement

In Tables 3 and 4, the results of the cross-sectional and the longitudinal regression analysis are presented. The control variables included in the model are known to influence dependent variables such as turnout at the annual general meeting and volunteering, as was indicated in the methods section. It is clear that association size negatively influences the turnout at the annual general meeting, while the percentage of youth members also has a negative influence. On the contrary, the percentage of members in a competition influences the turnout positively. The cross-sectional model and the longitudinal model show no significant negative influences of the level of consumerist membership forms. For volunteering (Table 4), a different pattern was found. Again, association size negatively influences involvement in voluntary sport associations in the cross-sectional model, but the longitudinal model shows that association size is a positive determinant for volunteering. This means that large associations have lower levels of volunteerism, but they have been more successful in volunteer recruitment over the last five years. Interestingly, the level of consumerist membership forms also has a significant positive relationship with the number of members who volunteer, both in the cross-sectional and the longitudinal model.

Table 3. Regression of logged turnout at Annual General Meeting on background variables and level of consumerist membership forms (cross-sectional results for 2012 and longitudinal results for 2007–2012). Coefficients and standard errors.

	Cross-sectional model	Longitudinal model
Independent variable	Turnout at AGM (log)	Turnout at AGM (log)
(Constant)	2.648^c (0.102)	1.103^c (0.178)
2007 level of AGM turnout (log)	–	0.568^c (0.062)
Association size (log)	−0.627^c (0.048)	−0.255^c (0.052)
Age of the organization	−0.001 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)
Team sports index (team sports =1)	−0.002 (0.054)	−0.043 (0.044)
Large city (large city = 1)	−0.002 (0.039)	−0.013 (0.032)
Percentage of members in formal competitions	0.002^a (0.001)	0.001^a (0.001)
Percentage of youth members in the association	−0.007^c (0.001)	−0.003^a (0.001)
Degree of consumerism in membership form	0.005 (0.017)	−0.001 (0.013)
Adjusted R^2	0.669	0.789
N	215	183

Regression coefficients included in the table are non-standardized.

a p < 0.05.

b p < 0.01.

c p < 0.001.

Table 4. Regression of percentage of members volunteering on background variables and level of consumerist zmembership forms (cross-sectional results for 2012 and longitudinal results for 2007–2012). Coefficients and standard errors.

	Cross-sectional model	Longitudinal model
Independent variable	Members volunteering (log)	Members volunteering (log)
(Constant)	1.545^c (0.138)	−0.085 (0.288)
2007 level of members volunteering (log)	–	0.513^c (0.086)
Association size (log)	−0.230^b (0.065)	0.326^b (0.105)
Age of the organization	0.001 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Team sports index (team sports =1)	0.078 (0.070)	0.105 (0.065)
Large city (large city = 1)	−0.058 (0.052)	0.006 (0.047)
Percentage of members in formal competitions	0.000 (0.001)	−0.001 (0.001)
Percentage of youth members	−0.002 (0.001)	−0.002 (0.001)
Degree of consumerism in membership form	0.058^a (0.022)	0.047^a (0.019)
Adjusted R^2	0.070	0.274
N	206	158

Regression coefficients included in the table are non-standardized.

a p < 0.05.

b p < 0.01.

c p < 0.001.

Emotional commitment

Tables 5 and 6 provides an overview of the results for the cross-sectional data and the longitudinal data for both variables that measure emotional commitment. First, association size is a negative determinant of commitment, like it was for both measures of formal involvement. In the cross-sectional model, associations with team sport have higher emotional commitment, whereas the level of youth members in the association is a negative determinant of commitment. The degree of consumerism in an association’s membership form has a positive influence on the commitment of its members. The longitudinal model shows that only the 2007 level of commitment influences the 2012 data. Finally, the degree of consumerism in membership form is not related to lower numbers of non-playing membership. Association size and the age of the organization do have a significant effect on the number of non-playing memberships in a voluntary sport association.

Table 5. Regression of emotional commitment on background variables and level of consumerist membership forms (cross-sectional results for 2012 and longitudinal results for 2007–2012). Coefficients and standard errors.

	Cross-sectional model	Longitudinal model
Independent variable	Emotional commitment	Emotional commitment
(Constant)	4.512^c (0.251)	3.001^c (0.445)
2007 level of emotional commitment	–	0.322^c (0.084)
Association size (log)	−0.422^b (0.123)	−0.149 (0.131)
Age of the organization	−0.003 (0.002)	−0.003 (0.002)
Team sports index (team sports =1)	0.304^a (0.137)	0.214 (0.154)
Large city (large city = 1)	0.009 (0.104)	0.093 (0.113)
Percentage of members in formal competitions	0.002 (0.002)	0.002 (0.002)
Percentage of youth members	−0.009^b (0.003)	−0.006 (0.003)
Degree of consumerism in membership form	0.104^a (0.045)	−0.024 (0.046)
Adjusted R^2	0.151	0.137
N	228	190

Regression coefficients included in the table are non-standardized.

a p < 0.05.

b p < 0.01.

c p < 0.001.

Table 6. Regression of non-playing memberships on background variables and level of consumerist membership forms (cross-sectional results for 2012 and longitudinal results for 2007–2012). Coefficients and standard errors.

	Cross-sectional model	Longitudinal model
Independent variable	Non-playing memberships	Non-playing memberships
(Constant)	1.271^c (0.172)	0.823^c (0.231)
2007 level of non-playing memberships	–	0.457^c (0.082)
Association size (log)	−0.257^b (0.083)	−0.185 (0.098)
Age of the organization	0.006^c (0.001)	0.005^b (0.002)
Team sports index (team sports =1)	0.310^b (0.095)	0.139 (0.108)
Large city (large city = 1)	−0.007 (0.073)	0.050 (0.080)
Percentage of members in formal competitions	−0.002 (0.001)	0.000 (0.002)
Percentage of youth members	−0.002 (0.002)	−0.002 (0.002)
Degree of consumerism in membership form	0.019 (0.031)	−0.012 (0.031)
Adjusted R^2	0.151	0.349
N	173	106

Regression coefficients included in the table are non-standardized.

a p < 0.05.

b p < 0.01.

c p < 0.001.

Discussion

This article is one of first to present longitudinal data to understand the development of voluntary sport associations as reaction on (supposed) changes in the society (cf. Wicker et al., 2012). Our main goal with this article is to shed light on the consequences of, a by academics and national sport associations proclaimed, consumerist turn of members in local voluntary sport associations on the formal involvement and emotional commitment of members of these associations. Based on the data, we have presented the development of a sample of voluntary sport associations in the Netherlands over the past five years (2007–2012) both cross-sectional as longitudinal. Because, we did not research associations that disappeared in these years, our sample is biased towards the associations that survived these past five years. Also, because not all associations answered the questionnaire completely both times, we had to deal with some missing data. This might have distorted the results of our study, although it is not clear what effects this distortion exactly has on the outcomes of this study.

With these limitations or features of our sample in mind, it is even more surprising to see that the surviving associations in our study have not made much effort to respond to the proposed emergence of the consumer. In spite of modernization and consumerist calls from national sport organizations (see Van der Roest et al., 2015), very few associations in our study have become more oriented towards flexibility and service. In contrast, in the whole sample they even have become less flexible in their membership services. This means that, based upon our study, an actual consumerist turn at the local organizational level is not taking place in voluntary sport associations. This is remarkable, because we had expected such a turn, based on the literature on the development of voluntary sport associations and the content of national policies in this field. Unfortunately, our study does not provide any conclusive information about the existence or non-existence of a consumerist attitude at the individual level. Based upon our organizational level findings, members of voluntary sport associations are perhaps just not asking for a change towards consumerism.

Associations are often reproached for not modernizing their activities, but whether this is justified if members are not requesting a change is questionable. From this observation, the question emerges as to whether voluntary sport associations might be immune to consumerist pressures because of the way they are organized. Perhaps in sport, the traditional association logic is still stronger than the consumer logic.

This would be in line with Salipante and Golden-Biddle (1995), who claim that traditionalism is a mechanism of continuity in nonprofit organizations. They note that ‘the continuity of practices that has led to reliable mission-based performance in the past is to be valued’ (Salipante & Golden-Biddle, 1995, p. 4). Because many voluntary sport associations offer competitive sport to their members, the organizational practices, mission, expertise and identity of these associations are quite clear to their environment. This has made them reliable and accountable to their members and their resource providers (cf. Hannan & Freeman, 1984; Salipante & Golden-Biddle, 1995). Salipante and Golden-Biddle (1995) therefore recommend that nonprofit organizations capitalize on their traditionality. In their view, these organizations ‘are well advised to maintain their core practices and identity through constancy of their practices, understanding and exploitation of their histories, and strengthening of their traditionality’ (Salipante & Golden-Biddle, 1995, p. 16). They do note that this last recommendation is the most problematic one, as the pressure on nonprofits to become more business-like is high.

However, anecdotal evidence from large membership organizations, particularly in Europe, suggests that the first contours of a countermovement against consumerism are already becoming visible. For example, the Dutch Royal Touring Club (ANWB) is trying to once again infuse its brand name with the connotations of commitment and enduring support that has been part of its membership tradition. One example is the re-introduction of volunteerism as part of the association (Algemene Nederlandse Wielrijders Bond [ANWB], n.d.-a) and the introduction of membership communities on different topics (ANWB, n.d.-b). Likewise, commercial brands are creating ‘friendship’ and more commitment among their consumers. In the voluntary sport sector in the Netherlands, this countermovement is also becoming apparent, for instance through a new advertising campaign by the Royal Dutch Football Association that underlines ‘togetherness’ and stresses the importance of football as ‘the biggest social network in the Netherlands’ (Koninklijke Nederlandse Voetbal Bond [KNVB], 2014).

Because there was no large increase in voluntary sport associations adapting their organizational arrangements, the effects on the involvement and commitment of members has also proven to be limited. Still, our study shows some interesting results. First, the 2007 level of the dependent variable showed to be highly significant in every longitudinal analysis, indicating that changes indeed come about slowly in voluntary sport associations. Second, size of the organization remains one of the most important determinants in explaining differences between voluntary sport associations in all of our analyses (cf. Ibsen, 1992; Østerlund, 2013; Wicker et al., 2014). Remarkably, the effect of organizational size over time showed some mixed results. In the longitudinal analysis on member turnout to the AGMs, size was a negative determinant, whereas it was a positive determinant for the percentage of members volunteering. Third, the level of consumerist membership forms can have positive effects on voluntary sport associations. Associations that did introduce new and innovative membership forms have more positive attitudes towards the future and a higher percentage of volunteers within the organization. This suggests that modernizing the association to a limited extent might be linked to positive developments in voluntary sport associations, which is again in line with Salipante and Golden-Biddle (1995), who claim that gradual change that incorporates continuity is the most successful strategy for the survival of these organizations.

That last observation deserves some extra attention. Some authors have noted that consumer instead of membership behaviour in sport associations might have detrimental effects on the community character of these organizations (e.g. Enjolras, 2002; Ibsen & Seippel, 2010). Our study shows that this might not necessarily be the case, as ‘consumerist’ associations do not show lower levels of commitment. However, the question remains as to what extent customer behaviour actually is present in these organizations. Do people really relate to (sport) associations as they would do to consumer-supplier relationships, or is there still some sense of commitment in being a member of an association? Based upon our research, there is little evidence that a consumerist turn is actually taking place, and it is yet unknown whether such a turn will happen at all. Yet we do have a reservation regarding that observation. Our results do not show any evidence of decreasing numbers of volunteers in sport associations. However, our study offers no insights in the character of volunteerism in these associations. Further research is needed to determine whether an increased focus towards service delivery and consumerism does yield changes in the management of volunteers. It might be the case that volunteers are increasingly seen as ‘a flexibly recruited and easily interchangeable unpaid ‘workforce’’ (Lorentzen & Hustinx, 2007, p. 109) rather than as important members of the organization (cf. Meijs & Hoogstad, 2001).

Conclusion

In this study, we researched whether voluntary sport associations in the Netherlands are changing their services by adapting to a proclaimed and supposed consumerist attitude in sport participation and what the consequences of such a shift are for member involvement in these associations. We found that there is little evidence of sport associations adapting to a consumerist attitude among their members. Based on our study, there is no consumerist shift taking place in Dutch voluntary sport associations. Furthermore, we found that in associations that have changed their services towards more flexible activities and a service orientation, there was little evidence of decreasing levels of commitment among the members. Further research is needed into this concept of ‘committed consumers’ as opposed to ‘committed members’ in sport associations.

Future research might provide more insights into the changing arrangements of voluntary sport associations to see whether they are adapting to a public that is thought to increasingly display consumerist attitudes in its membership behaviour. First, we have noted in this article that we have not focused on the increasing critical consumer as our concern was with flexibility and non-sport related services. However, more research should be targeted at the way voluntary sport association’s deal with this supposed criticism among their members, as this is also an important part of the discussion regarding consumerism and associations. Second, a focus beyond voluntary sport associations in the Netherlands is needed to examine whether this modernization of associations is taking place in a broader context. As we have noted, the (supposed) trend of sport association members becoming more consumer-oriented might also be taking place in voluntary associations outside the sport sector, such as choirs, scouting groups and patient organizations.

Finally, the attitude towards these organizations should be critically examined on an individual level to evaluate levels of consumerist attitudes among members. Our research does raise questions about the viability of the expected consumerist turn in sport associations. If actual changes in the services of sport associations are not occurring, while the organizations are remaining relatively stable, it might be that in this fragmented market not all associations need to make these arrangements. Some associations might benefit from offering their activities in a more flexible way, but improved flexibility does not necessarily imply that members are becoming consumers. In this respect, we concur with Pilgaard (2012) in flexibility that might be attractive for some associations, but only if the traditional values of sport associations are maintained.

Notes on contributors

Jan-Willem van der Roest, is a lecturer at the School of Governance, Utrecht University, The Netherlands and a researcher at the Mulier Institute, The Netherlands. His research concerns the development of voluntary sport clubs, especially in relation to consumerist tendencies.

Janine van Kalmthout, is a researcher at the Mulier Institute, The Netherlands. She manages the Dutch Voluntary Sport Club Panel and performs multiple researches into practices in voluntary sport clubs.

Lucas Meijs, is a professor of volunteering, civil society and businesses at Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. His current research focuses on strategic philanthropy, volunteer/non-profit management, corporate community involvement, business-society partnerships, voluntary energy as a natural resource, re-embedding voluntary energy, student-volunteering and involved learning (life-long development by volunteering).

Disclosure statement

The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of this article.

Note

Notes

1 We have chosen the term association to describe what also could have been called organizations or clubs. We do so because of the specific connotations Ibsen and Seippel (2010) describe and because this term is closest to the term that is used in The Netherlands to describe these organizations (verenigingen).