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Abstract
Two narratives dominate the literature on the history of post-9/11 US intelligence community reorganization. The first narrative centers on how to improve the performance of the intelligence community. The second narrative centers on placing blame. Overlooked in the histories and evaluations of post-9/11, intelligence reorganization is a civic education narrative. In this narrative, intelligence community reorganization arguments serve as a vehicle for engendering public support for the political system and bolstering the long-term health of the political system. It is argued here that developing a full understanding of post-9/11 intelligence reorganization in the US requires incorporating this civic education narrative into histories and analyses of this reorganization effort.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank Jordan Tama for his helpful comments on an earlier version of the paper.
Notes
1 James March and Johan Olson, “Organizing Political Life: What Reorganization Tells Us about Government,” American Political Science Review 77, no. 2 (June 1983): 281–96.
2 Glenn Hastedt, “Creation of the Department of Homeland Security,” in Contemporary Cases in U.S. Foreign Policy, 2nd ed., ed. Ralph Carter (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2005), 149–80.
3 “White House Opposes Sections of 9/11 Bill”, September 29, 2004. http://www.truth-out.org/archive/item/49968:white-house-opposes-sections-of-911-bill (accessed November 20, 2012).
4 John Deutch and Jeffrey H. Smith, “Smarter Intelligence,” Foreign Policy 128 (2002): 64.
5 Paul R. Pillar, “Intelligent Design,” Foreign Affairs 87, no. 2 (2008): 139.
6 Paul Pillar, “Artificial Intelligence Reform: Social Amnesia and the Intelligence Community,” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs 13, no. 2 (2012): 177–83.
7 William J. Lahneman, “Knowledge-Sharing in the Intelligence Community After 9/11,” International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 17, no. 4 (2004): 614–33.
8 Arthur S. Hulnick, “Does the U.S. Intelligence Community Need a DNI?” International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 17, no. 4 (2004): 720.
9 Richard A. Falkenrath, “The 9/11 Commission Report: A Review Essay,” International Security 29, no. 3 (2004/5): 170–90.
10 Joshua Rovner and Austin Long, “The Perils of Shallow Theory: Intelligence Reform and the 9/11 Commission,” International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 18, no. 4 (2005): 609–37.
11 Quoted in Richard Ellis, Presidential Lightening Rods: The Politics of Blame Avoidance (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1994), 179.
12 This list is adapted from R. Kent Weaver, “The Politics of Blame Avoidance,” Journal of Public Policy 6, no. 4 (1986): 371–98.
13 Richard A. Falkenrath, “The 9/11 Commission Report.”
14 Richard J. Heuer, Jr., “Limits of Intelligence Analysis,” Orbis 49, no. 1 (2005): 75–94.
15 Report of the Joint Inquiry into the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001 – By the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence and the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, December 2002, xv–xvi.
16 Lance Cole, Special National Investigative Commission: Essential Powers and Procedures (Some Lessons from Pearl Harbor, Warren Commission, and 9/11 Commission Investigations) (Carlisle, PA: Legal Studies Research Paper #18-2009), 27.
17 Thomas Kean and Lee Hamilton with Benjamin Rhodes, Without Precedent: The Inside Story of the 9/11 Commission (New York: Vintage Books, 2007), 14.
18 Helen Fessenden, “The Limits of Intelligence Reform,” Foreign Affairs 84, no. 6 (2005): 113.
19 Ibid., 110.
20 Philip Shenon, “9/11 Commission Says US Agencies Slow Its Inquiry,” New York Times, July 9, 2003. Reprinted in The 9/11 Report with Reporting and Analysis by the New York Times (New York: St. Martin’s Paperbacks, 2004), xv–xvi.
21 Philip Shenon, “Panel reaches Deal on Access to 9/11 Papers,” xvii–xviii.
22 Philp Shenon and Elisabeth Buhmiller, “Bush Allows Rice To Testify on 9/11 in Pubilc Session,” New York Times, March 31, 2004. Reprinted in The 9/11 Report with Reporting and Analysis by the New York Times, xx–xxi.
23 Reprinted in Strasser, The 9/11 Commission Investigations, Appendix D.
24 Ibid., 227.
25 R. Freeman Butts, The Revival of Civic Learning: A rationale for Citizenship Education in American Schools (Bloomington: Indiana, 1980), 123.
26 B.A. Turner and N. Pidgeon, Man-made Disasters (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997); and Michael Power, The Risk Management of Everything: Rethinking the Politics of Uncertainty (London: Demos, 2004).
27 Power, The Risk Management of Everything, 43.
28 William A. Galston, “Political Knowledge, Political Engagement and Civic Education,” American Review of Political Science 4 (2001): 217–34.
29 “Civic Education,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/civic-education/ (accessed May 16, 2012).
30 Butts, The Revival of Civic Learning, 155.
31 Quoted in Butts, The Revival of Civic Learning, 156.
32 March and Olson, “Organizing Political Life,” 288.
33 For example, see Harry C. Boyte, “Civic Education and the New American Patriotism Post 9/11,” Cambridge Journal of Education 33, no. 1 (2003): 85–100; and “Civic Education,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
34 Quoted in Joel Westheimer and Joseph Kahne, “Educating the ‘Good’ Citizen: Political Choices and Pedagogical Goals,” PS 37, no. 4 (2004): 241.
35 E. Wayne Ross, “Negotiating the Politics of Citizenship Education,” PS 37, no. 4 (2004): 250.
36 Selected Speeches of President George W. Bush, 2001–1008. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/infocus/bushrecord/documents/Selected_Speeches_George_W_Bush.pdf (accessed December 28, 2012).
37 George W. Bush, National Strategy for Combating Terrorism (Washington, DC: White House, 2003), 29.
38 “Weekly compilation of Presidential Documents, December 17, 2004,” 2004 Presidential Documents (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2004), 2985.
39 Westheimer and Kahne, “Educating the ‘Good’ Citizen,” 241.
40 Joel Westheimer, “Introduction – The Politics of Civic Education,” PS 3, no. 7 (2004): 231.
41 The legislation did not pass. A new bill with the same name was introduced in 2004. It was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush in December 2004. This legislation simply called for establishing Presidential Academies for Teaching American History and Civics. The legislation was silent on its content other than to improve instruction for new and veteran teachers. Westheimer, “Introduction,” 231.
42 Westheimer, “Introduction,” 231.
43 9/11 and the War on Terror in Curricula and in State Standard Documents (Medford, MA: The Center for Information & Research on Civic Learning and Engagement, 2011).
44 Edward, Wyatt, “Publisher Names 9/111 Charities,” New York Times, July 21, 2005, E3.
45 The data on library holdings was obtained using the OCLCWorldCat search engine.
46 March and Olson, “Organizing Political Life,” 290.
47 On this more general point see B.A. Turner and N. Pidgeon, Man-made Disasters, 61.
48 March and Olson, “Organizing Political Life,” 288.
49 Ibid., 291.
50 Ibid., 291.
51 The Position of Director of National Intelligence: Issues for Congress, Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2004).
52 Hulnick, “Does the US Intelligence Community Need a DNI?” 710–30.
53 Michael Warner and J. Kenneth McDonald, US Intelligence Community Reform Studies Since 1947 (Washington, DC: Center for the Study of Intelligence, 2005).
54 See, for example, Patrick Neary, “Intelligence Reform, 2001–2009: Requiescat in Pace?” Studies in Intelligence 54, no. 1 (2010): 1–16.
55 The testimony by Blair and Hayden may be found at “Ten Years After 9/11: Is Intelligence Reform Working, Part I,” http://www.hsgac.senate.gov/hearings/ten-years-after-9/11-is-intelligence-reform-working-part-i; and “Ten Years After 9/11: Is Intelligence Reform Working, Part II” http://www.hsgac.senate.gov/hearings/ten-years-after-9/11-is-intelligence-reform-working-part-ii (accessed December 28, 2012).
56 Michael Hayden, “The State of the Craft: Is Intelligence Reform Working?” World Affairs 173, no. 3 (2010): 35–47.
57 Dennis Blair, “Unfinished Business,” The American Interest 7, no. 4 (2012): 70–79.
58 Mike McConnell, “Overhauling Intelligence,” Foreign Affairs 86, no. 4 (2007): 49–58.
59 Their testimony can be found at http://www.hsgac.senate.gov/hearings/ten-years-after-9/11-a-report-from-the-9/11-commission-chairmen (accessed December 28, 2012).
60 “Statement by the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency David H. Petraeus to Congress on the Terrorist Threat Ten Years After 9/11.” https://www.cia.gov/news-information/speeches-testimony/speeches-testimony-archive-2011/statement-on-the-terrorist-threat-after-9-11.html (accessed December 28, 2012).
61 A Failure of Initiative, Final Report of the Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina, U.S. House of Representatives (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2006), 1.
62 “Lieberman Claims his Internet Spying Bill Would Prevent a 9/11 Pearl Harbor,” http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2012/07/24/lieberman-claims-internet-spying-bill-would-prevent-a-911-pearl-harbor (accessed on May 12, 2013).
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Glenn Hastedt
Glenn Hastedt holds a PhD in political science from Indiana University. Formerly the chair of the political science department at James Madison University, he is now professor and chair of the justice studies department. He is the author of American Foreign Policy: Past, Present, Future, 9th edition (Pearson, 2011) and editor of American Foreign Policy Annual Edition (McGraw Hill, 2013). He edited Controlling Intelligence (Frank Cass, 1991) and co-edited Intelligence Analysis and Assessment (Frank Cass, 1996). Hastedt has also authored articles on intelligence in Intelligence and National Security, Defense Intelligence Journal, International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence as well as chapters in edited volumes on intelligence.