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Abstract
This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between Mossad directors and the media on a historical timeline. It combines different methods such as qualitative research and comparative analysis of case studies from the history of the Mossad. This study is based on a database created from sources such as newspapers, books and in-depth interviews with former directors of the Mossad, Shin-Bet, senior journalists and politicians. It provides a glimpse into a fascinating dimension of Israel’s intelligence services which has been hidden from sight for many years and took place for the most part behind the scenes and far from the public eye. The study demonstrates the significant role the intelligence services’ directors play in shaping approaches to the media, mainly but not just in crisis situations.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Prof. Eytan Gilboa, Director of the School of Communication and Director of the Center for International Communication at Bar-Ilan University for his assistance.
Notes
1 Ted Gup, “Covering the CIA in Times of Crisis: Obstacles and Strategies,” Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 9, no. 3 (2004): 28–39. See also Philip Schlesinger, “Is There a Crisis in British Journalism?” Media, Culture & Society 28, no. 2 (2006): 299–307.
2 Glenn Hastedt, “Public Intelligence: Leaks as Policy Instruments, the Case of The Iraq War,” Intelligence and National Security 20, no. 3 (2005): 419–39. See also Ronald Kessler, The CIA at War – Inside the Secret Campaign Against Terror (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2003); Mark M. Lowenthal, Intelligence: From Secrets to Policy (London: Sage, 2011), 8; Howard Kurtz, “New York Times cites defects in its reports on Iraq,” The Washington Post, May 26, 2004, C1; and John M. Diamond, The CIA and the Culture of Failure: US Intelligence from the End of the Cold War to the Invasion of Iraq (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 6–8.
3 Shlomo Shpiro, “The Media Strategies of Intelligence Services,” International Journal of Intelligence and Counter Intelligence 14, no. 4 (2001): 485–502; Miri Eisin, “The Israeli Intelligence Community and the Media.” Journal of Intelligence History 9, no. 1–2 (2009): 11–14; and David Robarge, “CIA in the Spotlight: The Central Intelligence Agency and Public Accountability.” Journal of Intelligence History 9, no. 1–2 (2009): 105–26.
4 Dirk C. Gibson, “A Quantitative Description of FBI Public Relations.” Public Relations Review 23, no. 1 (1997): 11–30.
5 Interviewees who were members of the Foreign Affairs and Defense Committees in the Israeli Parliament (The Knesset).
6 James E. Grunig (2001). “Two-Way Symmetrical Public Relations: Past, Present, Future,” in Handbook of Public Relations, ed. Ray L. Heath (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage), 11–30; Denise E. DeLorme and Fred Fedler, “Journalists’ Hostility Toward Public Relations: An Historical Analysis.” Public Relations Review 29, no. 2 (2003): 99–124; James E., Grunig, Larissa A. Grunig, Krishnamurthy Sriramesh, Yi-Hui Huang, and Anastasia Lyra, “Models of Public Relations in an International Setting.” Journal of Public Relations Research 7, no. 3 (1995): 163–86; Kim, Yungwook, and Jiyang Bae. “Korean Practitioners and Journalists: Relational Influences in News Selection.” Public Relations Review 32, no. 3 (2006): 241–5.
7 David E. Morrison and Howard Tumber, Journalists at War: The Dynamics of News Reporting During the Falklands Conflict (London: Sage, 1988), 23; and Miles Hudson and John Stanier, War and the Media: A Random Searchlight (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 307.
8 Fraser Seitel, The Practice of Public Relations (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004), 19, 318, 327.
9 Francis J. Marra, “Crisis Communication Plans: Poor Predictors of Excellent Crisis Public Relations.” Public Relations Review 24, no. 4 (1999): 461–74.
10 George Tenet and Bill Harlow, At the Center of the Storm (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 44.
11 Dirk C. Gibson, “A Quantitative Description of FBI Public Relations.” Public Relations Review 23, no. 1 (1997): 11–30.
12 John Ranelagh and Laura Kellard, The Agency: The Rise and Decline of the CIA (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolso, 1986).
13 Ronald Kessler, Inside the CIA (New York: Pocket Books, 1992), 283, 296.
14 Yossi Melman and Dan Raviv, The Imperfect Spies: The History of Israeli Intelligence (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989), 21; “One Man Mossad,” Haaretz, October 29, 1997, 11 (Hebrew).
15 Shmuel Segev (journalist, Maariv), in discussion with the author, December 2007.
16 Yitzhak Hofi (former Mossad director), in discussion with the author, November 2007; Shabtai Shavit (former Mossad director), in discussion with the author, November 2007; Shmuel Segev (journalist, Maariv), in discussion with the author, December 2007.
17 Meir Amit, Head to Head (Or-Yehuda: Had Arzi Publishing House, 1999), 140 (Hebrew).
18 Ibid., 199–200.
19 Ibid., 263.
20 Meir Amit (former Mossad director), in discussion with the author, November 2007.
21 Eytan Haber (journalist, Yediothh Ahronothh), in discussion with the author, February 2008; Segev, discussion.
22 Zvi Zamir (former Mossad director), in discussion with the author, October 2007.
23 Rafi Eytan (former Mossad employee), in discussion with the author, January 2008.
24 Hofi, discussion.
25 Zeev Schiff was a well-known and highly respected Israeli journalist who covered national security and intelligence for many years.
26 See note 24 above.
27 Ibid.
28 Ibid.
29 Aluf Benn, “His Administration Cost Him His Position,” Ha-Ir, January 13, 1989, 10–12. (Hebrew); see also HCJ 680/88 Schnitzer vs. Chief Military Censor, P.D. 44 [4], 617–646 (Hebrew).
30 Ran Edelist, “The Mossad in Turmoil,” Maariv, September 26, 1997, 25 (Hebrew).
31 Shavit, discussion.
32 Ibid.
33 Aluf Benn, “The Departing Director – One of the Main Contributors Introducing the Iranian Threat,” Haaretz, March 13, 1996, A7 (Hebrew); Oded Granot, “The Seven Good Years,” Maariv, June 7, 1996, 17 (Hebrew).
34 Naomi Levitsky, “Changing Organization,” Hadashot, March 13, 1996, 2 (Hebrew).
35 Eytan, discussion.
36 Naomi Levitzky, “Imperfect Spies,” Hadashot, August 30, 1991, 6–9 (Hebrew).
37 Oded Granot, “The Seven Good Years,” Maariv, June 7, 1996, 16 (Hebrew).
38 Aluf Benn, “The Departing Director – One of the Main Contributors Introducing the Iranian Threat,” Haaretz, March 13, 1996, A7 (Hebrew).
39 Shavit, discussion.
40 Gad Shimron, The Mossad & the Myth (Jerusalem: Ketter, 1996), 88 (Hebrew).
41 Gad Shimron (journalist and former Mossad employee), in discussion with the author, January 1998.
42 Zvi Yehezkeli, “The Agent Who Wrote the Book of the Mossad: Not Credible, but Well-Connected,” Yedioth Ahronoth, April 12, 1998, 11 (Hebrew); Gad Shimron, The Mossad & the Myth (Jerusalem: Ketter, 1996), 93 (Hebrew).
43 Shavit, discussion.
44 Yossi Melman, “Sometimes a Small Organization Does Not Recover,” Haaretz, October 30, 1995, B1 (Hebrew).
45 Prior to being appointed director Yatom was the Military Secretary to both Prime Ministers Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres (1993–1996).
46 Sever Plotzker, “With No Name – There Is No One to Blame,” Haaretz, March 19, 1996, 2 (Hebrew).
47 Amir Oren, “On the Way to the Mossad’s Closed Doors,” Haaretz, January 9, 1998, B5 (Hebrew); and Yemini, “Following Her Departure – ‘Ayin’ Will Be Irreplaceable,” Yedioth Ahronoth, September 25, 1998, 20 (Hebrew).
48 Oded Granot, “The Mossad’s Good Dad,” Maariv, March 6, 1998, 8 (Hebrew); Yossi Melman, “Former Mossad Directors: The Combinaion of Levi & Levin May Be Problematic,” Haaretz, March 5, 1998, A4 (Hebrew); Yossi Melman, “Halevi Spent Most of His Years in ‘Tevel’ & Bizur,” Haaretz, March 5, 1998, A4 (Hebrew); and Ron Ben-Yishai “Amiram Sent for Probation,” Yedioth Ahronoth, March 6, 1998, 4–5 (Hebrew).
49 Itamar Eichner and Smadar Perry, “I Was Called to Duty – So I Came.” Yedioth Ahronoth, March 5, 1998, 2 (Hebrew); and Efraim Halevy, Man in the Shadows: Inside the Middle East Crisis with a Man Who Led the Mossad (New York, NY: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2006), 84.
50 Oded Granot, “The Mossad’s Good Dad,” Maariv, March 6, 1998, 8 (Hebrew).
51 Nahum Manbar is an Israeli citizen who was involved in arms trading with Iran, placed on trial in Israel and convicted and served fourteen and a half years in prison.
52 In this context, it is interesting to note that an American court initially allowed Ostrovsky’s book to be published on the grounds that it was already on the shelves, it thus being far too late – in practical terms – to prevent its publication.
53 Nava Cohen-Tzuriel, “Bergman’s Fascinating Drama,” Kol Hazman, December 29, 2000, 42–3 (Hebrew).
54 The Herzeliya annual conference is Israel’s premier global policy gathering. See Ron Leshem, “The Mossad in Deep Freeze,” Yedioth Ahronoth, January 18, 2002, 11 (Hebrew).
55 “The New Mossad Director,” Haaretz, June 30, 2002, B1 (Hebrew).
56 Chen Shalita, “Image Piece,” Kol-Ha-ir, July 27, 2001, 56 (Hebrew).
57 Alon Ben-David (journalist, Channel 10), in discussion with the author, May 2008; and Amir Oren, “First Time: A Press Liaison for the Mossad,” Haaretz, August 26, 1999, 1 (Hebrew).
58 Yossi Melman, “The Mossad Needs Employees, But Is Afraid of Double Agents,” Haaretz, August 4, 2000, A7 (Hebrew); and Ariella Ringel-Hoffman, “Spies Wanted,” Yedioth Ahronoth, July 31, 2000, 8 (Hebrew).
59 Chen Shalita, “Image Report,” Kol-Ha-ir, July 27, 2001, 50 (Hebrew).
60 Ibid.
61 Yehuda Koren, “My Shadow and Me,” Yedioth Ahronoth, July 6, 2001, 16 (Hebrew).
62 Osnat Cottan, “Join Us at the Mossad,” Maariv, August 4, 2000, 6 (Hebrew).
63 Eytan Rabin, “No Longer ‘Top Secret’,” Maariv, April 16, 2001, 3 (Hebrew).
64 Yossi Melman (journalist, Haaretz), in discussion with the author, April 2008.
65 Shavit, discussion.
66 Ben-David, discussion.
67 Interview with senior journalist, May 2008. Several interviews were conducted in confidentiality, and the names of interviewees are withheld by mutual agreement.
68 Yeudit Yehezkeli and Itamar Eichner, “One Agent That Was Killed Left Behind An Unborn Child,” July 20, 1998, 9 (Hebrew).
69 Ron Leshem, “Leaking Money to Aman and Shin-Bet; The Mossad Seeks to Promote Itself,” Yedioth Ahronoth, July 6, 2001, 20 (Hebrew).
70 Amir Oren, “First Time: A Press Liaison For the Mossad,” Haaretz, August 26, 1999, 1 (Hebrew).
71 Interview with senior journalist, May 2008. Several interviews were conducted in confidentiality, and the names of interviewees are withheld by mutual agreement.
72 Gerald Westerby, In Hostile Territory: Business Secrets of a Mossad Combatant (New York, NY: HarperBusiness, 1998); Yossi Melman, “Israel Will Not Take Legal Actions Against Former Agent’s Book,” May 5, 1998, A5 (Hebrew).
73 See note 70 above.
74 Zamir, discussion; Danny Yatom (former Mossad director), in discussion with the author, December 2007; Shavit, discussion.
75 Amir Oren, “First Time: A Press Liaison for the Mossad,” Haaretz, August 26, 1999, 1 (Hebrew).
76 Efraim Halevy, Man in the Shadows: Inside the Middle East Crisis with a Man Who Led the Mossad (St. Martin’s Griffin, 2006).
77 Hezi Kalo (former Shin-Bet director’s Chief of Staff), in discussion with the author, March 2008.
78 Avi Dichter (former Shin-Bet director), in discussion with the author, April 2008.
79 Interview with journalist, May 2008. He preferred to remain anonymous, see also note 70.
80 Amir Oren, “A Crisis within the Mossad: Dagan’s Deputy Resigns,” May 25, 2007, 1, 11 (Hebrew).
81 Ronen Bergman, “Targeted Killing,” Yedioth Ahronoth, June 6, 2008, 8–9 (Hebrew).
82 Ben-David, discussion; Melman, discussion; and Yossi Melman, “An Internal Coup or Impatience with the Director,” Haaretz, February 13, 2004, B6 (Hebrew).
83 Alex Doron, “Google’s Stock Market,” Maariv, April 30, 2004, 3 (Hebrew); Meir Schnitzer, “The Bad Days of the Media,” Maariv, March 23, 2004, 6 (Hebrew).
84 Shahar, Gur, and Amir Rapaport, “Trapped in Auckland,” Maariv, April 18, 2004, 14–15 (Hebrew).
85 Yossi Melman, “The Defense Attorney Asked For Dismissal Due to the Publications Regarding the Mossad,” Haaretz, April 19, 2004, A7 (Hebrew).
86 Jack Khoury, “Op-Ed in an Egyptian Paper: Mossad Director Meir Dagan – Superman,” Haaretz, January 16, 2010, http://www.haaretz.co.il/news/politics/1.118475/ (accessed May 15, 2013) (Hebrew).
87 Aluf Benn, “Nasrallah Too is Afraid of Dagan’s Methods,” Haaretz, September 26, 2008, http://www.haaretz.co.il/misc/1.1351637/ (accessed June 24, 2013) (Hebrew).
88 Amir Oren, “The Prisoner X Affair Is a Classic Story of Israeli Failure,” Haaretz, February 14, 2013, 17.
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Notes on contributors
Clila Magen
Clila Magen is an Instructor at the School of Communication and a research fellow at the Center for International Communication at Bar-Ilan University in Israel. From 2009 to 2011 she was a visiting scholar at the Communication Research Center at Boston University. Dr. Magen served as a spokesperson for the Chair of the Committee of Defense and Foreign Affairs of the Knesset (Parliament) and is an author of a forthcoming book about the relationship between the Israeli intelligence services and the media.