Victors’ history: Chinese retrospectives on the Hugh Redmond case

ABSTRACT

In 1954, a Shanghai court sentenced US national Hugh Redmond to life imprisonment on espionage charges. Found guilty of directing an extensive agent network against Chinese political, economic and military intelligence targets, he remained in custody until his alleged suicide in 1970. Since then, Redmond’s life has been the subject of several Western publications, but detail has been scarce about his reporting requirements, collection methods and the security operation that culminated in his arrest. Drawing on Chinese accounts of the case, this paper addresses these gaps. A picture emerges of non-official cover arrangements flawed from the outset at a time when the US demand for Korean War-related intelligence was at its height. Alerted by doctrine and success against another local CIA operation, Shanghai’s security apparatus moved cautiously against Redmond’s network, obtaining evidence that made the guilty verdict of 1954 inevitable. To Chinese intelligence practitioners, the case provides an exemplary example of how counter-espionage work against the US should proceed in the 21st century. In July 2019, CIA would ‘neither confirm nor deny the existence or non-existence’ of records related to Redmond’s activities in China, and the 50^th anniversary of his death in 2020 passed without public official acknowledgement.

KEYWORDS:

• CIA
• China
• Hugh Redmond
• counter-espionage

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author

Notes

¹ “Shanghai Shi Junshi Guanzhi Weiyuanhui Jun Fa Chu Dui Meiguo Zhengfu ‘Disishisisi Haiwai Guance Dui’ Jiandie Zuzhi Jinxing Qianfu Huodong Weihai Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Anpan Jueshu” [Judgement of the Shanghai Military Control Commission Military Court on the case of the US Government “External Survey Detachment 44” espionage group’s harmful hidden activities against the People’s Republic of China] Renmin Ribao 13 September 1954, hereafter “Judgement”.

² Maury Allen, China Spy: the story of Hugh Francis Redmond (New York: Gazette Press, 1998) & Ted Gup, The Book of Honor: the secret lives and deaths of CIA operatives (New York: Anchor Books, 2001), 43–66,100–102, 211–216. Post-arrest US press articles at https://cia.gov/readingroom/search/site/Hugh%Redmond.

³ See Office of Special Operations briefing, Director’s Log 7–8 September 1951 (classified Top Secret) at https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/1951-09-01.pdf, & “Forgotten hero may be honored after 50 years” New York Post 29 May 2000. On 25 July 2019 CIA’s Information and Privacy Coordinator advised the author that CIA could ‘neither confirm nor deny the existence or non-existence’ of records related to Redmond’s activities in China.

⁴ David Ian Chambers, “The Past and Present State of Chinese Intelligence Historiography” Studies in Intelligence 56:3 (2012), 31–46. Case-history collections include Li Kai, Yinbi Zhanxian Shi Hua [Talks on Hidden Front History] issued by the Ministry of State Security Political Department in 2011 and the Ministry’s serial Yinbi Zhanxian Xie Chunqiu [Annals of the Hidden Front] (Shishi Chubanshe, 2000 onwards).

⁵ Hallmark post-Mao CCP Propaganda Department notices restricting public intelligence history include Zhongyang Xuanchuan Bu, “Zhong Xuan Fawen (1982) 16 hao: Guanyu Bianji chuban huiyi dixia douzheng duwu yingdang zhuyi wenti de tongzhi” [Notice on issues to be addressed in the editing and publication of memoirs about the underground struggle] 29 April 1982, Shanghai Dangshi Ziliao Tongxun 3:1982, 40–42 & Zhongyang Xuanchuan Bu Zhuanfa Renmin Chubanshe “Guanyu chuban huiyilu zhong yixie wenti de chuli banfa de tongzhi”, [Notice on methods of handling issues in memoir publications] 30 November 1982, at http://218.249.32.178/Web/ArticleShowAspx?artid=010036&cateid=A1201301.

⁶ Bradley F Smith, “The OSS and Record Group 226: some perspectives and prospects”. in George C Chalou (ed.), The Secret War: The Office of Strategic Services in World War II (Washington DC: National Archives and Records Administration, 2002), 360.

⁷ See KGB veteran Yuri Totrov’s article based on declassified US archives and interviews, ‘American Intelligence in China (1945–1956)’ Far Eastern Affairs 2 (2002), 100–106.

⁸ Early biographical data in Allen, China Spy, 48 & Gup, Book of Honor, 86–95. See also Li Changjiu, Cao Zheng & Wang Jianhua, Zai Teshu Zhanxian Shang: Jian guo hou xingxingsese dite jiandie jishi [On the Special Front: a complete record of enemy agent espionage after the founding of the state] (Changchun: Jilin Renmin Chubanshe, 1988), 62ff.

⁹ Wang Jinxiang, Dongbei Gongan Jiu Nian Huigu [Looking back on nine years’ public security in the North-East] (Beijing: Qunzhong Chubanshe, 1991), 31–34.

¹⁰ Liaoning Sheng Gongan Ting Shi Zhi Bianzuan Weiyuanhui (ed.), Liaoning Gongan Dashiji 1945–1985 [Chronology of Public Security in Liaoning 1945–1985] (Shenyang: Liaoning Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, 1999), 15–16 & He Xia, Jiefang Chuqi Shenyang Gongzuo Huigu [Looking back on Public Security Work in Shenyang during the early period of Liberation] (Shenyang Gongan Ju, 1993, 42–44, 50–66.

¹¹ John K Singlaub with Malcolm McConnell, Hazardous Duty: an American soldier in the Twentieth Century New York: Summit Books, 1991), 157–158, 535.

¹² Li Haiming, Yinbi Zhanxian Shang De Ma Jingzheng [Ma Jingzheng on the Hidden Front] (Beijing: Zhongguo Renmin Gongan Daxue Chubanshe, 2004), 212–213.

¹³ Shanghai Shi Gongan Ju Gongan Shi Zhi Yanjiu Shi (ed.), Shanghai Gongan Dashiji (1949–1986) (Weidinggao) [Draft Chronology of Shanghai Public Security (1949–1986)] (np, 1993), 15. Batukhtin is generally referred to in PRC sources by his given name, rendered as Weikete. CIA’s Information & Privacy Coordinator has declined to confirm or deny the existence of records of Batukhtin’s service for the agency– letter to the author, 22February2017.

¹⁴ Yao Huafei, “Meiguo jiandie Shanghai luo wang ji” [The downfall of a US espionage network in Shanghai] Xinmin Wanbao 7 May 2016, A15.

¹⁵ Yang Fan, Duan Wei: Mengyuan Ershiwu Nian De Gongan Juzhang [Broken Mast: the 25-year ordeal of a Public Security Bureau chief] (Beijing: Qunzhong Chubanshe, 2001), 142, Shanghai Lu Xun Jinian Guan (ed.), Du Xuan Jinian Ji [Collected Memories of Du Xuan] (Shanghai: Shanghai Shehui Kexue Xueyuan Chubanshe, 2014), 11–12, 408 & Wang Zhengming, Tie Chuang, Chizi Xin [Prison Window, Pure Heart] (Hong Kong: Xiang Gang Wenhui Chubanshe, 2012), 435–436.

¹⁶ By this stage, PSB signals interception work was exploiting the expertise of Li Peiming a senior Guomindang communications specialist who defected to the CCP in early May 1949 - see Shanghai Shi Guojia Anquan Ju, Jiangsu Sheng Guojia Anquan Ting, Huadong Qingbao Shi Bianzuan Weiyuanhui Bangongting Qingbao Shi Bianji Zu, Huadong Qingbao Shi Zhuanti Xuanji [Special Selection on East China Intelligence History] (np, 1994), 452–475.

¹⁷ See the post-arrest photograph in the opening pages of Li Changjiu et al, Zai Teshu Zhanxian.

¹⁸ Yao Huafei, “Meiguo Jiandie Shanghai luo wang ji”.

¹⁹ Huang Zhenrui (ed.), 1949 Shanghai Gongan Jiyi [Memories of Shanghai Public Security in 1949] (np, 2009), 113–114.

²⁰ There are no firm traces of “Tom Smith” in open sources; the name may have been an operational alias.

²¹ Yao Huafei, “’Di44 Haiwai Guance Dui’ Fumie Ji” [Record of the sinking of External Survey Detachment 44] Dang’an Chunqiu 3 (2017), 48.

²² Nong Fei, “Zhong Qing Ju bai zou Shanghai tan: ESD44 Shanghai Zongbu zhenpo ji” [CIA’s defeat and flight from Shanghai] Xin Min Wanbao 26 March 2017, B11.

²³ Luo Ruiqing, “Zuzhi duiwu, jianli Xin Zhongguo de gongan gongzuo” [Organise forces, establish new China’s public security work] 1 November 1949 in Luo Ruiqing Lun Gongan Gongzuo 1949–1959 [Luo Ruiqing on Public Security Work 1949–1959] (Beijing: Qunzhong Chubanshe, 1994), 9–10.

²⁴ Zhong Gong Zhongyang Shehui Bu, Shanghai Teqing [Shanghai Special Agents] (np., March 1949), 4ff.

²⁵ Yao Huafei, “Di44 Haiwai Guance Dui”, 48 & Fan Jinchuan, “Diehai ‘Wei Zheng’ fengyun” [The espionage ‘false evidence’ storm] Dongfang Jian 2 (2007), 51.

²⁶ Yao Huafei, “Di44 Haiwai Guance Dui”, 49. No date or place is given for Li’s confession.

²⁷ Ibid. & Nong Fei, “Zhong Qing Ju bai zou Shanghai tan”.

²⁸ “Shanghai Shi Renmin Jianchashu Dui Meiguo Zhengfu ‘Disishisi Haiwai Guance Dui’ Jiandie Zuzhi Jinxing Qianfu Jiandie Huodong Weihai Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo An Qisushu” [Indictment of the Shanghai People’s Procuratorate on the conduct of hidden activities endangering the PRC by the US Government’s “ESD 44” espionage organisation] 23 August 1954, Renmin Ribao 13 September 1954, hereafter ‘Indictment’. Metz’s provenance in “Ronald Metz dies” Washington Post 27 August 2002.

²⁹ Li Changjiu et al, Zai Teshu Zhanxian, 68 & Yao Huafei, “Di44 Haiwai Guance Dui” 51.

³⁰ Yao Huafei, “Di44 Haiwai Guance Dui”, 51.

³¹ For military background, see Odd Arne Westad, Decisive Encounters: the Chinese Civil War 1946–1950 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 181–228.

³² Redmond’s new cover arrangement was possibly facilitated via Henningsen’s vice President and Operations Manager Robert A Henningsen, a veteran of OSS’s Far East section during World War II: see “Robert A. Henningsen, Petitioner and Cross Respondent, Andr. A. and Margaret Henningsen, Petitioner, v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, Respondent and Cross-petitioner, 243 F.2d 954 (4th Cir. 1957)” at https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/243/954/6661/

³³ Li Changjiu et al, Zai Teshu Zhanxian, 68.

³⁴ Ibid., 64, 68–69.

³⁵ There can be little doubt about the attractiveness of US$ payments given the hyper inflation of the Civil War’s final years and the new régime’s struggle to stabilise consumer prices – see Zhong Gong Shanghai Shiwei Dangshi Yanjiu Shi (ed.), Lishi Jubian 1949–1956 [Historic Change 1949–1956] (Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian Chubanshe, 2001), 57–82.

³⁶ The following section is based on Yi Jiaxiang, “Jianjue, chedi, ganjing, quanbudi suqing yiqie fangemingfenzi – women buneng wangji zhejian shi” [Resolutely, thoroughly, cleanly and completely eliminate counter-revolutionaries – we must never forget this affair] Renmin Ribao 27 August 1955, Zhu Zhencai, Jianguo Chuqi Beijing Fanjiandie Da An Jishi [Record of major Beijing counter-espionage cases in the early period after the foundation of the state] (Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 2006), 119–131, Beijing Shi Gongan Ju Dangshi Gongan Shi Bangongshi (ed.), Beijing Shi Gongan Ju Dashiji 1948–1965 [Chronology of Beijing Municipal Public Security Bureau 1948–1965] (np, nd), 71 & Li Changjiu et al, Zai Teshu Zhanxian, 91–97.

³⁷ The official is not named in the sources cited above.

³⁸ Zhu Zhencai, Jianguo Chuqi Beijing Fanjiandie Da An Jishi, 128. See also Baptism By Fire–CIA analysis of the Korean War: acollection of previously released and recently declassified intelligence documents (Washington DC: CIA Historical Collections Division, 2010), 12–13 which notes that 554 reports were produced between July and November1950, ‘a considerable number’ deriving from Chinese communist sources.

³⁹ Jianguo Yilai Gongan Gongzuo Yaolan [Survey of major events in public security work since founding of the state] (Beijing: Qunzhong Chubanshe, 2003), 12 & Shanghai Shi Gongan Ju Gongan Shi Bianzuan Weiyuanhui, Shanghai Gongan Zhi [Shanghai Public Security Annals] (Shanghai: Shanghai Shehui Kexue Yuan Chubanshe, 1997, hereafter Shanghai Gongan Zhi, 550–551.

⁴⁰ Yang Fan, Duan Wei, 145 & Wang Zhengming, Tie Chuang, 135.

⁴¹ Zou Ronggeng, “Su te, ji dao he zhenya fangeming” [Eliminate spies, arrest criminals and suppress counter-revolution], Shanghai Shiwei Dangshi Yanjiu Shi (ed.), Lishi Jubian, 142.

⁴² Overviews of such operations in Huang Zhenrui, Shanghai Gongan Jiyi 1949, 107-112, 115–122 & Zhang Bin, Die Zhan Shengya [An Espionage War Career] (Hong Kong: Xiang Gang Yusi Chubanshe, 2003), 163–245.

⁴³ Julia C Strauss, “Paternalist terror: the campaign to suppress counter-revolutionaries and regime consolidation in the People’s Republic of China, 1950–1953” Comparative Studies in Society and History 44:1 (2002), 80–105, Gongan Bu Gongan Shi Ziliao Zhengji Yanjiu Lingdao Xiao Zu Bangongshi (ed.), Jianguo Chuqi de Zhenya Fangeming Yundong [The Suppression of Counter-Revolutionaries Movement in the early period after the founding of the state] (Beijing: Qunzhong Chubanshe, 1992), 1–92, Shanghai Gongan Zhi, 103–108 & Shanghai Shiwei Dangshi Yanjiu Shi (ed.), Lishi Jubian, 142–162.

⁴⁴ “Fensui diguozhuyi liyong tianzhujiao jinxing de pohuai huodong: Shanghai pohuo liangqi jiandie tewu an” [Smash imperialism’s use of Catholics to conduct sabotage activities: Shanghai solves two espionage agent cases] Renmin Ribao 10 July 1953, Shanghai Gongan Zhi, 111–116 & Paul P Mariani, Church Militant: Bishop Kung and Catholic resistance in communist China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 2–21, 58–62.

⁴⁵ ”Dongbei Xingzheng Weiyuanhui Gongan Bu gongbu Shenyang pohuo Meiguo jiandie an; zhuyaoren Sasaki deng quanbu luowang wo Renmin Zhengfu jiang yifa yuyi zhicai” [North East Administrative Committee announces breaking of Shenyang US espionage case; leader Sasaki and others will all be punished by the People’s Government in accordance with the law]” Renmin Ribao 19 June 1949, & Consul-General at Peiping (Clubb) telegram to the Secretary of State, 19 June 1949 at https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1949v08/d1189.

⁴⁶ By November 1950, only 236 Americans remained in Shanghai, compared with 2,547 in June 1949. For background, Beverley Hooper, The Elimination of the Western Presence in China: the communist victory and its aftermath (PhD dissertation, Australian National University, 1982), 262–313 & Zhang Wenqing, “Shanghai renmin kang Mei yuan Chao yundong’ [The Shanghai People’s Resist America-Aid Korea Campaign” Zhong Gong Shanghai Shiwei Dangshi Yanjiu Shi (ed.), Lishi Jubian 1949–1956, 124–141.

⁴⁷ ”Tianjin pohuo Meiguo jiandie zuzhi puhuo zhongwaiji jiandie zuifan ershiyi ming” [Tianjin cracks US espionage organisation and captures 21 Chinese and foreign and espionage criminals] RMRB 21 March 1951 & ‘American spy ring unearthed in Tientsin’ China Pictorial May 1951.

⁴⁸ Yao Huafei, “Di44 Haiwai Guance Dui”, 49.

⁴⁹ Li Changjiu et al, Zai Teshu Zhanxian, 70. Fathers John Clifford, John Houle and Thomas Phillips were eventually arrested in June 1953.

⁵⁰ Yao Huafei, “Di44 Haiwai Guance Dui”, 50.

⁵¹ Nong Fei, “Zhong Qing Ju bai zou Shanghai tan”.

⁵² “Luo Ruiqing Tongzhi guanyu chengshi zhenya fangeming wenti gei Zhongyang de baogao” [Report by Comrade Luo Ruiqing to the CCP Central Committee on issues in the suppression of urban counter-revolutionaries] (23) March 1951 in Zhongguo Renmin Jiefangjun Guofang Daxue Dang Shi Dang Jian Zheng Gong Jiaoyan Shi (ed.), Zhong Gong Dangshi Jiaoyan Cankao Ziliao [Reference Materials for Teaching and Research on CCP History] Vol. 19 (1988), 254, Yang Fan, Duan Wei, 143–148.

⁵³ Allen, China Spy 109–111, no source provided. Redmond’s Shenyang commanding officer notes in his memoir that he became aware of Redmond’s marriage ‘before the fall of China’, i.e. it was hardly a recent event at the time of Redmond’s arrest – see Singlaub, Hazardous Duty, 157.

⁵⁴ Citing an un-named friend of Redmond quoting an un-named CIA officer, Allen, China Spy, 112 suggests that Redmond’s wife was acommunist agent and that she betrayed Redmond– aflawed hypothesis in view of the evidence that the PSB had gathered about him prior to his arrest.

⁵⁵ Fan Jinchuan, “Diehai ‘Wei Zheng’ fengyun”, 48.

⁵⁶ Yang Fan, Duan Wei, 180–81, Tao Baikang, Wuming Yi Yingxiong [Anonymous Hero] (Shanghai: Shanghai Sanlian Shudian, 2009), 80–87.

⁵⁷ Wang Zhengming, Tie Chuang, 391–392.

⁵⁸ Four years later, the building served as the secret Shanghai interrogation centre for members of the Hu Feng and Pan Hannian ‘Counter-Revolutionary Cliques’ – Wang Wenzheng, Wo Suo Qinli de Hu Feng An [My personal experience of the Hu Feng case] (Dangdai Zhongguo Chubanshe, 2015), 12–13.

⁵⁹ See, for example, Allen, China Spy, 122–124. Some indication of Redmond’s initial treatment in custody may be gained from the account of Shanghai lawyer Robert Bryan, similarly detained as a suspected US spy by the Shanghai PSB in 1951 – see Robert T Bryan, ‘I came back from a Red death cell’ Saturday Evening Post, 17 January-7 February 1953. I am grateful to Doug Clark for drawing this source to my attention. Col. Philip E Smith & Peggy Hertz, Journey Into Darkness (New York: Pocket Books, 1992), 192–196 and Fred L Borch III & Robert F Dorr, “2032 days in solitary in China” Vietnam Magazine February 2009 at http://www.historynet.com/2032-days-solitary-china.htm provide fellow-inmate descriptions of Redmond’s last years.

⁶⁰ Nong Fei, “Zhong Qing Ju bai zou Shanghai tan”. Redmond’s falsification of his length of active espionage service bears comparison with a similar tactic adopted by CIA officer Richard Fecteau, captured in Jilin province in November 1952. In that case, Fecteau falsified his date of his entry into CIA service, thus reducing his interrogators’ scope for questioning him about earlier operations. See Nicholas Dujmovic, “Two CIA Prisoners in China, 1952–1973” Studies in Intelligence 50:4 (2006) at http://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-studies/vol50no4/two-cia-prisoners-in-china-1952201378.html.

⁶¹ Nong Fei, “Zhong Qing Ju bai zou Shanghai tan”. Dates and direct quotations from Redmond given in his trial indictment (see note 28 above) demonstrate that his pre-trial interrogation continued until at least March 1952.

⁶² Li Mouren, “Zhongyang Qingbao Ju Yuandong Qingbao Zhan Leidemeng jiandie jituan zai Zhongguo fumie” [The annihilation in China of CIA’s Far East Intelligence Station and Redmond’s espionage group], http://www.g.com.cn/mil/23739144

⁶³ Fan Jinchuan, “Diehai ‘Wei Zheng’ fengyun”, 52 & “Judgement” (see Note 1 above) RMRB 13 September 1954.

⁶⁴ Zhu Zhencai, Jianguo Chuqi Beijing Fanjiandie, 120–121, 131 & Beijing Shi Gongan Ju Dangshi Gongan Shi Bangongshi, Beijing Shi Gongan Ju Dashiji, 71.

⁶⁵ ”Judgement” (see Note 1) & “Indictment” (see Note 27 above)

⁶⁶ For examples, see Robert Jay Lifton, Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism (London: Victor Gollancz, 1961) & Lawrence CHinkle and Harold GWolff, ”Communist interrogation and indoctrination of “enemies of the people“ AMA Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry August1956, 115–174.

⁶⁷ See Smith & Hertz, Journey into Darkness, 192–196 and Borch & Dorr, “2,032 days in solitary in China” for fellow-inmate recollections of Redmond’s last years before his death. Redmond’s condition in 1954 is described by a fellow inmate in “Ill-treated, sick and in low spirits” Medford Mail 20 September 1954 at https://cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP75-00001R000400210016-4.pdf

⁶⁸ Ibid.

⁶⁹ On the Fecteau-Downey case and its aftermath, see the CIA-produced movie Extraordinary Fidelity at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0Mh7EiXRJI & Dujmovic, ‘Two CIA prisoners in China’.

⁷⁰ Shanghai Gongan Dashiji, 163–164.

⁷¹ Ibid., Gup, Book of Honor, 214 & Allen, China Spy, 176–177. US diplomat Robert W Drexter who received Redmond’s ashes in Hong Kong recalled being informed by the Red Cross that razor blades were never included in its comfort parcels – interview for Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training Oral History Project 1 March 1996 at https://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Drexler,%20Robert%20W.toc.pdf pp. 40–41

⁷² Shanghai “Wenge” Shiliao Zhengli Bianzuan Xiaozu, Shanghai “Wenhua Dageming”Shihua (Song shengao) [History of the “Great Cultural Revolution” in Shanghai (Draft)] unpublished manuscript, August1992, 453–474. Iam grateful to Michael Schoenhals for providing acopy. Overview of the China’s prison system chaos in Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Jianyu Shi 1949–2000 (Song Shengao) [History of PRC prisons 1949–2000 (Draft)] (Beijing: Zhongguo Jianyu Xuehui, 2006), 191–208.

⁷³ Michael Schoenhals, “The Central Case Examination Group, 1966–1969” The China Quarterly 145 (March 1996), 87–111.

⁷⁴ Luo’s suspected misconduct as Minister of Public Security was attacked in two keynote speeches by his successor Xie Fuzhi: “Hold aloft the great red banner of Mao Zedong Thought: Make a clean sweep of the poison spread by Lo Jui-ch’ing in public security work” in Down with Lo Jui-ch’ing, Usurper of Army Power, a July 1967 pamphlet translated in US Consulate-General Hong Kong, Selections from China Mainland Magazines 641, 20 January 1969 & “Zai Gongan Bu geming zaofan pai he geming qunzhong douzheng fangeming xiuzhengzhuyi fenzi Luo Ruiqing dahui de jianghua” [Speech to revolutionary rebels and revolutionary masses at an MPS meeting to struggle the counter-revolutionary revisionist element Luo Ruiqing] 7 August 1967, Zhong Gong Wenhua Da Geming Zhongyao Wenjian Huibian [Compilation of Major CCP Documents of the Great Cultural Revolution] (Taipei: Zhong Gong Yanjiu Zashishe Bianjibu, 1973), 357–361.

⁷⁵ Schoenhals, “Central Case Examination Group”, 106–107, Liu Guangren (ed.), Feng Jiping Zhuan [Biography of Feng Jiping] (Beijing: Qunzhong Chubanshe, 1997), 335, 346–349 & Robin Munro, Dangerous Minds: political psychiatry in China today and its origin in the Mao era (New York: Human Rights Watch, Geneva Initiative on Psychiatry 2002), 66–84.

⁷⁶ Wu Zhonghai, “Xuexi Pan Hannian geming jingshen nuli luxing xin xingshi guojia anquan jiguan genben zhize” [Study the revolutionary spirit of Pan Hannian and strive to execute the fundamental duties of state security organs in the new era] Guo An Zheng Gong: Pan Hannian Tongzhi Bainian Danchen Jinian Tekan [Political Work: Special Issue to commemorate the centenary of Pan Hannian’s birth] (MSS Political Department compendium, 2006), 10–12.

⁷⁷ Liu Li preface to Li Kai (ed.), Yinbi Zhanxian Shihua [History of the Hidden Front] (MSS Political Department compendium, 2011).

⁷⁸ On triangulation, see Philip HJ Davies, “Spies as informants: Triangulation and the Interpretation of Elite Interview Data in the study of the Intelligence and Security Services” Politics 21 (1), 2001, 77–79.

⁷⁹ A Tom Grunfeld, ‘‘God we had fun’: The CIA in China and Sino-American relations”. Critical Asian Studies 35:1 (2003), 129, 131–132.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

David Ian Chambers

David Chambers graduated in Government at Manchester University in 1970 and received his PhD from Bristol University in 1981. Between 1971 and 1987, he taught Chinese politics at Bristol University and served twice as Secretary of the British Association of Chinese Studies. In 1987 he joined the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, later serving as a member of Her Majesty's Diplomatic Service in Hong Kong, Beijing and Bangkok. In 1998 he was a Senior Research Fellow at the International Institute for Asian Astudies of Leiden University.