Beautiful Black British brand: exploring intersectionality of race, gender, and self-branding of Black British sportswomen

ABSTRACT

Research question

The study examines the intersectionality of race and gender and its impact on self-branding of Black British sportswomen.

Research methods

: Data from semi-structured interviews with 18 Black British sportswomen were thematically analysed to identify key strategies they adopt in building and managing their brand.

Results and findings

We found that Black British sportswomen employ five different strategies to build and manage their brand: (1) being exceptional, (2) seeking partnerships, (3) remaining themselves, (4) communicating their experience, and (5) thinking beyond the sport.

Implications

This study provides insights into the intersectionality of gender and race in sports and offers practical implications on building a brand for sportswomen, sports management agencies working with diverse talents and governing bodies assisting Black sportswomen in creating and building their brands.

KEYWORDS:

• Black sportswomen
• human brand pyramid
• individual-level branding
• intersectionality theory
• social media
• sports brand

Introduction

A growing body of work has been exploring the changing landscape of sportswomen as brands. For example, Toffoletti and Thorpe (2018) examined the branding and consumption of global celebrity sportswomen on Instagram. Mogaji et al. (2022) explored the prospects, challenges and opportunities for sportswomen as a human brand. Ahmad and Thorpe (2020) focused on the efforts of Muslim sportswomen using the digital space to curate their everyday visibility. However, despite the increasing research on how sportswomen engage in self-branding, the intersectionality of race and gender and its impact on brand positioning has not been explored, specifically in terms of Black sportswomen. This intersectionality is of utmost concern as they navigate being a Black woman and a sportsperson (Litchfield et al., 2018; Ratna, 2013), especially for the individual-level sports brands – individual sportswomen taking responsibility for their brand positioning (Mogaji et al., 2022; Toffoletti & Thorpe, 2018).

With the limited theoretical understanding of the lived experiences of Black sportswomen and how they manage their brands as individuals, this study builds on previous studies that have explored sportswomen brands (e.g. Adjepong, 2020; Li et al., 2021; Martinez-Pascual et al., 2016; Mogaji et al., 2022; Ratna, 2013; Richard et al., 2017; Toffoletti & Thorpe, 2018) to address the following research question: How are Black British sportswomen (BBS) developing and managing their personal brands? To address this question and achieve the research aim, the human brand pyramid (Mogaji et al., 2022) intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1992) and the model of athlete brand image (Arai et al., 2014) have been adopted as the theoretical underpinnings to explore the intersectionality of race, role and gender that influences the self-branding strategies of BBS.

Through qualitative data collected via semi-structured interviews with BBS and adopting a reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2022), this study provides valuable insights into their experiences as they build and manage their personal brands. The research makes noteworthy theoretical contributions to existing studies focusing on self-branding of athletes (Hu et al., 2023; Mogaji et al., 2022; Schibblock et al., 2022; Woods et al., 2023) and intersectionality, particularly concerning race, gender, and role dynamics in the sports context (Arai et al., 2014; Crenshaw, 1992; Kunkel et al., 2022). Additionally, it sheds light on the crucial aspect of brand management in the sports industry, acknowledging the necessity for sportswomen to possess the skills, tenacity, and ability to navigate their diverse identities while building their brand effectively (Mogaji et al., 2021; Mogaji et al., 2022; Su et al., 2022). Additionally, the study offers practical implications for brand managers in deciding whom to work with, sports management agencies working with diverse talents and governing bodies supporting Black sportswomen in developing and building their brands.

Literature review

Self-branding of sportswomen

Self-branding refers to individuals considering themselves products to be marketed to a broad audience to enhance their economic competitiveness (Anderski et al., 2023; Mogaji, 2021). It involves constructing and promoting a consistent, marketable, and seemingly authentic self-image to build relationships for economic opportunities, using affective relations to develop a positive reputation (Banet-Weiser & Alexandra, 2011; Scolere et al., 2018; Whitmer, 2019) Self-branding is anchored in the theory of self-presentation, which suggests that individuals embrace certain identities based on the situation, audience or setting (Arai et al., 2014). Whitmer (2019) presented a conceptualisation of self-branding and examined the implications of viewing oneself as a brand, including the construction of authentic self-brands in society, the influence of branding on self-presentation in social media, and the impact of self-branding on workers who feel pressured to brand themselves.

Self-branding is a prominent trend stemming from the neoliberal information economy, fostering a culture where individuals focus on creating credible work in various aspects, such as personal, political, and academic branding (Whitmer, 2019; Zolides, 2015). Banet-Weiser and Alexandra (2011) focused on the self-branding experiences of female academics, emphasising intersectionality in their feminist work. Scolere et al. (2018) explored how content creators shape their self-presentation across platforms, creating platform-specific self-brands. Mogaji et al. (2023) examined B2B self-branding in emerging markets, revealing tensions around professionalism, trustworthiness, and embracing cultural roots for African managers.

For sportswomen, self-branding is a recent trend where athletes try to promote their brand (Billings et al., 2017; Hu et al., 2023). However, there are recognised inherent challenges for sportswomen as they work on their self-branding. Lobpries et al. (2018) studied perceived barriers for elite female athletes in building a personal brand, including challenges like being bold and assertive, assumed attractiveness importance, performance considerations, feeling invisible and lacking, and proper brand management. Mogaji et al. (2022) explored prospects, challenges, and opportunities for sportswomen as human brands, revealing limited self-branding efforts due to issues like media coverage and gendered perceptions. Mogaji et al. (2021) examined the financial wellbeing of sportswomen, finding that effective self-branding can positively impact their financial stability and overall wellbeing.

An emerging body of literature has also critically examined this self-branding by focusing on specific sports. Zolides (2015) explores how gender influences female professional gamers in creating and managing their personas, facing unique challenges in online identity-building and femininity presentation. Woods et al. (2023) analyse the self-branding strategies of top-ranked professional disc golfers on social media, attributing their engagement to industry growth and marketing opportunities, with consistency across various social statuses. Schibblock et al. (2022) focus on the self-branding practices of the world's top 10 professional alpine skiing athletes on social media, emphasising business life content and deliberate front-stage performances. Together, these studies underscore the significance of self-branding for athletes in shaping their identities and economic independence.

Social media has made self-branding possible by increasing visibility and exposure (Duffy & Pruchniewska, 2017); consequently, social media has become an integral, efficient, and widely employed tool for personal branding (Gbadegeshin et al., 2021; Gökerik et al., 2018), especially for sportswomen who often have limited media coverage (Mogaji et al., 2022). Smith and Sanderson (2015) observe a balanced gender representation in athlete photographs on Instagram, with females prominently featured in active sports roles. Toffoletti and Thorpe (2018) highlight the impact of fans and followers in shaping the gendered self-presentation of female athletes as consumer-friendly brands on Instagram. Li et al. (2021) explores how elite female athletes effectively integrate Instagram Stories into their personal branding, using different platforms for various purposes. Su et al. (2020) focus on athletes using TikTok to build playful and authentic self-brands, effectively engaging with fans and promoting branded content. These studies emphasise the role of social media in athletes’ self-branding efforts and how it influences their online identities.

However, it is imperative to recognise that brand building goes beyond social media. While many studies have focused on social media for brand building (Chanth, 2022; Li et al., 2021; Sotiriadou et al., 2023; Toffoletti & Thorpe, 2018), this study set out to have a more holistic understanding of brand-building strategies for BBS, albeit beyond special media and to recognise the intersectionality that could shape the elf branding strategies. Few studies have explored these intersectionalities, and they offer a theoretical base for this present study. Ahmad and Thorpe (2020) focused on Muslim sportswomen using social media to challenge dominant discourses and showcase cultural agency in their self-branding. Pegoraro and Kennedy (2022) examined elite athletes through the lens of motherhood, focusing on Allyson Felix's and Alysia Montaño's experiences with motherhood during their Nike sponsorship agreements. Sotiriadou et al. (2023) examine how culture influences the self-branding strategies of elite sportswomen on social media, considering dimensions like uncertainty avoidance and individualism. Ratna (2013) highlights the experiences of British Asian female footballers in building their brand, revealing challenges and intersectional identity plays in women's football.

Despite the growing body of work in the field of self-branding, there are still significant gaps in knowledge that this study aims to address. Firstly, the present study seeks to fill the lack of specific emphasis on the self-branding experiences of sportswomen, particularly Black sportswomen, within the context of sports. While some studies have explored self-branding in athletes and sportswomen (Li et al., 2021; Smith & Sanderson, 2015; Toffoletti & Thorpe, 2018), there remains a dearth of research focusing on the unique experiences and challenges faced by Black sportswomen in building and managing their brands. Secondly, this study aims to expand the exploration of self-branding beyond social media and into diverse sports, particularly among women athletes. While studies like Smith and Sanderson (2015), Toffoletti and Thorpe (2018), Li et al. (2021), and Su et al. (2020) have examined elite female athletes’ self-presentation on platforms like Instagram and TikTok, this present study goes beyond the confines of social media to understand the phenomenon around the lived experiences of BBS, focusing on how they build and manage their brand across various sports and contexts. Lastly, the study intends to address the insufficient attention given to the experiences of BBS in the UK regarding self-branding and the intersectionality of race and gender. While studies like Mogaji et al. (2022) have contextualised self-branding for sportswomen and Ratna (2013) has explored the intersection of race, gender and sport, and Ahmad and Thorpe (2020) have examined the intersection of religion and gender, this study aims to extend the focus to BBS, exploring how they navigate the intricate intersectionality of race and gender while building their brand.

Theoretical underpinning

Motivated by the need to understand how BBS develop and manage their brands, this study is theoretically grounded in the human brand pyramid (Mogaji et al., 2022), which recognises the prospects of building self-brands as individuals, intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1992), focusing on the intersection of race and gender, and the model of athlete brand image (MABI) (Arai et al., 2014), which considers athletic performance, attractive appearance, and marketable lifestyle for brand building.

The theoretical framework, as illustrated in Figure 1, outlines a sequential progression from initial unawareness of self-branding to a conscious decision by Black sportswomen to embrace self-branding. Rooted in Mogaji et al.'s work (2022), the framework posits that while all individuals possess a personal brand, proactive effort is necessary to cultivate and shape it. This notion emphasises the conscious acknowledgment of the value inherent in self-branding and the subsequent commitment to its development. Moreover, intersectionality theory introduces an alternative narrative that can influence the strategic trajectory of self-branding. It highlights that the experiences of a Black British girl would differ from those of an Albanian boy. In the context of sports, the Model of Athlete Brand Image (MABI) further shapes the self-branding strategies of the Black British girl. Having acknowledged her human brand, she endeavours to construct her sports-related brand, irrespective of her gender or race. This framework underscores the intricate interplay between individual identity, strategic branding, and the broader sociocultural context in shaping the self-branding journey of Black sportswomen.

Figure 1. Theoretical conceptualisation of BBS navigating self-branding amidst intersectionality of gender and race.

As Mogaji et al. (2022) argue that every individual is a brand and emphasises the importance of recognising and actively building one's brand, they further noted that the lack of recognition affects sportswomen's willingness to build personal brands and become brand ambassadors regardless of race. The researchers stress the significance for sportswomen to acknowledge themselves as brands, as doing so can lead to increased visibility, more sponsorships, and a platform for advocating important causes. However, building a personal brand is challenging. Mogaji et al. (2022), along with Ahmad and Thorpe (2020) and Adjepong (2019), point out potential downsides, including the risk of exploitation, the pressure to maintain a certain image, and the possibility of being perceived as less authentic, which may perpetuate racial and sexist stereotypes. Despite these challenges, it is essential to recognise and appreciate the efforts of sportswomen as they navigate and build their brands amidst inherent difficulties.

This study extends the concept of self-branding by integrating intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1992), which recognises the unique challenges Black sportswomen face, particularly at the intersection of race and gender. The theory acknowledges that individuals experience discrimination and oppression in distinct ways, influenced by the interconnectedness of their social identities. By considering this intersectionality, the research aims to gain deeper insights into how race and gender dynamics impact the experiences of Black sportswomen as they develop their brands. Developed by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw in the late 1980s, emerging from the study of the lived experiences of racialised Black American women and the need to address the violence, racism, and social injustice (Atewologun et al., 2016) faced by them, the theory has been widely applied in academic fields such as sociology, psychology, and women's studies. One of the strengths of intersectionality theory is its ability to capture the complex and multifaceted nature of identity and discrimination (Warrier, 2022). Intersectionality recognises that individuals are not defined by a single social category, such as race, gender, or sexuality, but rather by the intersection of these categories. It explains why different individuals within the same group, such as BBS, may have vastly different experiences and face compounded forms of discrimination.

The Model of Athlete Brand Image (MABI) proposed by Arai et al. (2014) plays a crucial role in understanding how sportswomen navigate the intersectionality of their experiences when building their brands. MABI considers athletic performance, attractive appearance, and a marketable lifestyle key element for brand building. When combined with intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1992), MABI helps comprehend how race and gender dynamics uniquely shape the branding experiences of sportswomen, particularly those from minority groups. These athletes face specific challenges and opportunities due to stereotypes and societal expectations about race and gender (Adjapong & Carrington, 2014; Zenquis & Mwaniki, 2019). For example, Black sportswomen encounter intersecting stereotypes regarding athleticism and femininity, influencing how they are perceived and marketed in the sports industry (Adjapong & Carrington, 2014; Hardin et al., 2004). Bruce and Antunovic (2018) noted that the bodies of Black female athletes are often subject to extra surveillance, as more people are intent on controlling their portrayals.

Additionally, the intersection of race and gender may also influence the types of sports they are encouraged to pursue, potentially limiting their branding opportunities in certain sports (Ratna, 2013). For instance, societal expectations may push Black sportswomen towards sports perceived as more traditionally masculine, where racial stereotypes may be reinforced (Adjapong & Carrington, 2014). Understanding this interplay between MABI and intersectionality helps provide a comprehensive view of how sportswomen navigate challenges and opportunities while building their brands in diverse sports environments.

While previous studies have explored intersectionality in sports and its impact on experiences and opportunities (Ahmad & Thorpe, 2020; Hu et al., 2023; Ratna, 2013), the present study takes a broader perspective, recognising the inherent challenges faced by the Black race in sports and considering the diversity of sports where these challenges are encountered. Black sportswomen are often victims of predetermined social roles, perceived as more aggressive and closer to masculinity than their White counterparts, leading to greater marginalisation (Adjapong & Carrington, 2014). They are subjected to racial stereotypes, hypersexualised or asexualised in the media, and their portrayals are subject to extra surveillance, limiting their representation and reinforcing racial stereotypes (Bruce & Antunovic, 2018; Hardin et al., 2004).

By exploring their lived experiences, the research aims to contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of self-branding among sportswomen, especially those from diverse racial backgrounds, and shed light on their challenges. The theoretical conceptualisation depicted in Figure 1 recognises the potential transformation from an individual unaware of self-branding to navigating the intersectionality of race and gender, ultimately becoming a recognised sportsperson with exposure and sponsorship opportunities. This present study focuses on BBS, delving into their experiences and how they develop and manage their brands amidst the complexities of their intersecting identities.

Methodology

Interpretative phenomenological methodology

This study adopts a qualitative research approach, employing an interpretative phenomenological methodology, to gain deeper insights into the lived experiences of BBS, focusing on how they build and manage their brand. The chosen methodology is centred on understanding individuals’ lived experiences, exploring their perceptions and meanings associated with specific aspects of their lives (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). By employing this methodology, we aim to explore and understand the unique experiences of BBS in the context of the intersectionality of their race, gender, and sporting activities. We seek to identify these women's perceptions of their challenges while building and managing their brands. Through the interpretative phenomenological study, we gain valuable insights into their perspectives and experiences, shedding light on the intricate landscape of self-branding for BBS.

Sample and participant recruitment

Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with UK sportswomen. To recruit participants, we employed a multi-pronged approach. We strategically utilised social media platforms to share the call for participants, maximising our outreach to a diverse audience. Additionally, we directly contacted various sports clubs, such as those affiliated with universities, athletics, gymnastics, tennis, and swimming, and numerous leisure and sports centres where sportswomen were likely to be training. We also contacted some known Black sportswomen through their social media. This comprehensive recruitment strategy allowed us to reach potential participants from various backgrounds and sporting disciplines.

Braun and Clarke (2022) suggested that participant selection strategies can be combined, so this study employed various sampling methods to ensure a diverse and representative participant pool. We utilised convenience sampling, where individuals volunteered to participate after seeing our call for participants. Additionally, we implemented snowball sampling, where current participants recommended others interested in joining the study. Lastly, we adopted purposive sampling, proactively reaching out to ‘information-rich’ participants (Patton, 2015) – well-known BBS and inviting them to participate in the research. These sampling approaches allowed us to gather insights from various participants, capturing valuable perspectives on the phenomenon. Participants were chosen based on the following criteria: (a) were above 18 years old, (b) identified as a woman, (c) identified as an individual from the Black ethnic group, either through both parents or one parent, (d) identified as British, through birth or naturalisation and (e) identified as a professional or semi-professional sportswoman. Though twenty-three participants showed interest, five participants could not finally attend the interview, and 18 made the final list of participants for the interview. Demographic information is provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Demographic information about participating Black British sportswomen.

Participants	Age	Sporting Background			Racial Background
		Sports	Sports category	Level of professionalism	Being British	Race
SW1	18–21	Football	Team-oriented	Semi-professional (Student)	Naturalised British	Mixed race
SW2	18–21	Basketball	Team-oriented	Semi-professional (Working)	Naturalised British	Both parent
SW3	18–21	Athletics	Solo	Semi-professional (Student)	Born British	Both parent
SW4	18–21	Tennis	Solo	Semi-professional (Working)	Born British	Both parent
SW5	22–25	Tennis	Solo	Semi-professional (Student)	Born British	Both parent
SW6	22–25	Football	Team-oriented	Semi-professional (Working)	Born British	Both parent
SW7	22–25	Gymnastics	Solo	Professionals	Born British	Both parent
SW8	22–25	Athletics	Solo	Professionals	Born British	Both parent
SW9	22–25	Netball	Team-oriented	Semi-professional (Student)	Born British	Both parent
SW10	22–25	Volleyball	Team-oriented	Semi-professional (Student)	Born British	Mixed race
SW11	22–25	Athletics	Solo	Semi-professional (Student)	Born British	Mixed race
SW12	22–25	Football	Team-oriented	Semi-professional (Working)	Naturalised British	Both parent
SW13	26–30	Athletics	Solo	Semi-professional (Working)	Born British	Both parent
SW14	26–30	Athletics	Solo	Professionals	Naturalised British	Both parent
SW15	26–30	Swimming	Solo	Professional	Born British	Mixed
SW16	26–30	Football	Team-oriented	Professional	Born British	Both parent
SW17	31–35	Athletics	Solo	Professional	Born British	Both parent
SW18	31–35	Football	Team-oriented	Professional	Born British	Both parent

Our sampling criteria was influenced by (a) were above 18 years old, (b) identified as a woman, (c) identified as an individual from the Black ethnic group, either through both parents or one parent, (d) identified as British, through birth or naturalisation, and (e) identified as a professional or semi-professional sportswoman.

Data collection

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the participants using an interview guide (see Appendix A). The interviews were conducted virtually over Zoom between April and May 2022 by the first author and recorded after obtaining explicit permission from the participants. Participants were assured that their information would be kept confidential and that personal details would not be shared. Participants were also informed that they could stop the interview without providing a reason; fortunately, all the participants stayed throughout the interview. The interviews lasted between 33 and 67 min, averaging 44 min. We reached data saturation with these participants as no new themes were emerging; the same themes already recorded were coming out repeatedly, so there was no justifiable reason to follow up and look for more participants (Levitt et al., 2017). We acknowledge that Braun and Clarke (2022) have critiqued this type of data saturation. However, since the UK has very few Black sportswomen, we found the number of participants satisfactory for answering our research question.

Data analysis

The transcriptions were initially collected through Otter, a speech-to-text application, and subsequently edited and saved as a PDF for further analysis. The PDFs were imported into NVivo, a computer software for qualitative data analysis. The transcripts were thematically analysed inductively by the first author, following Braun and Clarke’s (2006, 2016, 2019) six phases of thematic analysis. Specifically, the study employs a Reflexive Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2022), in which coding is viewed as a process beyond simple identification. Instead, it involves interpretation to gain deeper insights. The themes in this approach are not predetermined inputs but analytic outputs that emerge after the coding process and are developed from the codes themselves.

The analysis started with familiarisation and immersion with the data, reading the interview transcripts repeatedly to understand and search for meaning, connection and alignment with the research objectives. This phase was followed by generating initial codes (case nodes) in NVivo based on the earlier familiarisation. These initial case nodes were subsequently collated and merged to become child nodes. These child nodes were reviewed, subsequently collated, and assigned to relevant overarching 19 themes, produced through systematic and analytic engagement with the data set (Braun & Clarke, 2022). These discovered themes were further reviewed and refined as it became evident that some were closely related, and some were dormant. (Farinloye et al., 2019; Kaur et al., 2022).

The dormant themes are excluded from the final analysis for several reasons. First, they were from limited instances or participants, lacking sufficient significance. Second, they were not directly aligned with the research question or focus, thus removed to maintain coherence. Third, their lack of clarity and potential to dilute findings justifies their exclusion, ensuring a more concise and focused analysis. This selective removal enhances the robustness, relevance, and interpretability of the study's key patterns and insights. Despite removing the dormant themes, there were 76 child nodes (sub-sub themes) to illustrate the participants’ experience of the phenomenon. After discussion with the research team and the 19 parent themes considered satisfactory, they were merged and finally into five main themes addressing the research objectives, thus forming the typology of the brand-building strategies of the BBS. Appendix B presents a summary of the first-order concepts (child nodes, n = 76), second-order concepts (parent nodes, n = 19) and aggregated dimensions (main themes, n = 5).

Rigour and credibility

To uphold the rigour and credibility of the qualitative research, we prioritised ethical considerations throughout the study. Voluntary participants were recruited, and their willingness to share information was respected. We emphasised their autonomy by assuring them they could withdraw from the interview without explaining, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity. To enhance the trustworthiness of our findings, we implemented member checks, returning transcripts to participants for verification, and all participants confirmed that their thoughts were accurately represented, reflecting their lived experiences. To preserve the authenticity of the participants’ voices, we made a concerted effort to utilise their exact words in the final report. This approach allowed their lived experiences to be distinctly visible. Additionally, we maintained ongoing researcher reflexivity, acknowledging and addressing our biases and decision-making rationale as the study progressed. Aiming to ensure comprehensive data capture, we conducted regular debriefing sessions within the research team, fine-tuning our understanding of the participants’ experiences. Furthermore, we provided a table of themes (Appendix B), demonstrating the rigorous process by which themes were merged to answer the research question, showcasing the robustness and validity of our thematic analysis.

Findings

Through thematic analysis of the qualitative data from the semi-structured interviews, we found that BBS adopt five critical strategies for building and managing their brand: (1) being exceptional, (2) seeking partnerships, (3) remaining themselves, (4) communicating about their experiences and (5) thinking beyond sports. These themes are discussed in the following section and buttressed with anonymised participants’ quotes. Participants are serially coded with ‘SW’ (see Table 1 for detailed demographic information).

Being exceptional

All the sportswomen recognise the uphill challenge they face in sports, from the semi-professionals who want to become professional to the professionals who want to become more financially sustainable. Aligning with the human brand pyramid (Mogaji et al., 2022), which recognises sportswomen as a human brand, these women recognise that they must be exceptional with their human brand to establish themselves as a brand compared to their White counterparts. These women noted that their exceptionality and excellence in their sport is a catalyst for the need to establish, build and subsequently manage their brands. Though they feel the pressure, they note that they must continuously prove they are good enough for the team. One of the participants said.

As a Black woman, I feel the pressure to be exceptionally brilliant and break through invisible barriers to be seen and recognised. It is a tough journey, requiring hard work and dedication, but I won't settle for just being ‘okay.’ I want to shine, create my path, and leave no room for others to overlook my abilities. Despite the challenges, I believe this is the way to establish my brand and make a meaningful impact – SW2.

Moreover, they acknowledged that although White sportswomen may put in the bare minimum to excel, the expectations for their Black counterparts are higher. Some women in solo sports (n = 5) noted that their selection is not guaranteed even if they have similar achievements to other sportswomen; they must be exceptional. From the emotional stamina point of view, Black sportswomen noted that they have to demonstrate a high level of tenacity to build their brand because there is little to no support network. One of the participants, an athlete (SW3), said: ‘There is no white privilege for us; beauty does not give us a pass. There are huge demands for excellence, and even when you fail as a human, you are never supported to get up.’ One of the participants, who is a professional swimmer, corroborated this experience, saying:

One of the white girls was crying in training; she was drained and saying she could not continue; you need to see how the coaches were supporting it, showing some empathy, imagine if that was a Black girl crying at training, she is gone – SW15.

Even when they work so hard, many of these BBS acknowledge that their hard work is often not enough; they recognise some inherent challenges with how the intersectionality of race shapes their identity as a sportswoman. SW8, a professional athlete, shared her experience of working towards being exceptional; she said: ‘I have almost similar timing with these girls, but I know they would not pick me unless I do better.’ As an athlete aspiring to secure that coveted spot on the team, she understands she must be exceptional to earn her place and elevate her personal brand. She understands that being selected is a testament to her skills and a vital opportunity to showcase her brand to the world. With this recognition, her chances of presenting her brand to a broader audience would significantly improve.

These women noted that being an exception also involves physical appearance, and one needs to be conventionally beautiful to have a successful brand. Here, the shade of ‘Blackness’ becomes an essential feature of how the sportswomen manage their brand. Athletes with both Black parents believe their struggle to be different from those of mixed race. Three athletes with both Black parents, one professional (SW7) and two semi-professionals (SW5; SW6), noted how they prepared for training, using make-up and wearing wigs to look beautiful and conform to standards. Even the mixed-race athletes agreed there is a bias towards light-skinned women. SW10, a mixed-race volleyball player, shared her concerns about the photo shoot, saying: ‘I was being sexualised, the dresses were too revealing for me, and I was not comfortable with the image the brand was trying to create with me.’ Another mixed-race participant who is a footballer (SW16) recognises this bias towards light-skinned women, saying: ‘I know I have some privileges with my skin colour, different for some reasons, but that is not a guarantee to endorsements and sponsorship, some people would still refer me as a Black woman.’

These women sportspersons understand that building their self-brand goes beyond discussing the impact of gender and race on their experiences. They believe it starts with being exceptional, managing pressure, and enhancing their physical appearance. They also emphasise the importance of presenting confidence to gain recognition and respect for their brand. Despite acknowledging the pressure of needing to be exceptional, they see it as an integral part of their sport and self-branding strategy.

Seeking partnership

The sportswomen are aware of the enormous prospects out there for their brand. To achieve this, they look for partnerships, knock on doors for opportunities, network and hope for a positive outcome. The professionals were aware of the challenges in the industry and what lies ahead; they were emphatic about the hard work they needed to put in to build their brand and use it as a platform to seek partnerships to enhance their financial sustainability. One of the participants shared her strategy for seeking a partnership. She said:

I slide into the DMs of fashion brands on Instagram, pitching my ideas for collaboration. It's my go-to move! I share my Instagram metrics, showing them how I can boost their brand as an ambassador. It has been a journey, with just one small gig under my belt, but I'm not giving up. I keep knocking on those doors, and maybe the next big opportunity is just around the corner! – SW3

Some professional BBS turn to professional talent agents to increase their chances of securing partnerships. These agents act as strong advocates, fighting on their behalf and opening doors to crucial opportunities and collaborations. As a result, they provide these sportswomen with a much-needed platform to showcase their talents and accomplishments. One participant, a semi-professional footballer, shared her experience in getting a talent agent. She said:

During networking, I met a male footballer who connected me with a small talent agency. I am their first female client, and they're really putting in the effort, presenting me with exciting leads I wouldn't have found myself. Feeling excited about this new partnership! – SW12

However, this belief to seek partnership was not shared by some semi-professionals who feel that they need to enjoy themselves and that their brands will grow over time. SW11, a student and a semi-professional athlete, said, ‘I am still a student and still doing sports; I want to enjoy myself but at the same time think of my future and brand. It is important to build my network, but I will take my time.’ This vignette aligns with the findings of Mogaji et al. (2022), where sportswomen will choose to build their careers rather than their brands. For those choosing to seek partnerships, they were being selective. A professional athlete (SW14) said, ‘I do not want to lick anybody's a** to get a gig; I am a professional.’ These women noted that they had to seek partnerships on terms that aligned with their personal values.

Remaining themselves

While working hard and seeking partnerships, they believe in retaining their values and avoiding compromises. Seven participants shared their concerns about working with brands and asking for things with which they were uncomfortable. These women often find themselves in challenging situations; they are aware of existing institutional limitations and still choose to be themselves. However, remaining oneself is relative, as some women were comfortable trying something new. Three participants noted they are easy-going and willing to explore. SW17, a professional athlete, shared her experience about a project she had to do, saying, ‘I was meant to be a guest appearance at a party. I was uncomfortable at first – I am not an escort but a professional athlete – had to go with that professional mindset, and I had a great time.’ Participants acknowledged that they have had to go the extra mile to build and develop their brands while balancing their personal and professional values. SW18, a professional footballer, said: ‘I am a professional, I am a brand, and I want to build my brand, but I am very mindful of what I do. I am not too desperate.’

The level of ‘britishness’ was a factor that shaped the branding strategies and how well they chose to remain themselves. This intersection between their country of birth and that of their parents involves distinguishing between those born in the UK and those who immigrated to the UK with their parents at a young age. SW12, a naturalised British semi-professional footballer, said: ‘Even though you speak with the same accents, and you are British, there is still the notion that you were not born here’. This notion was also corroborated by another participant (SW2), who stated that she had to add the flag of her parent’s country to her Twitter profile. These women acknowledged that having a link to another country is something unique about them and can influence their brand positioning and strategies. In maintaining and managing their brand, these Black sportswomen rely on their faith, family, friends and fans. Five (four Christians and one Muslim) athletes acknowledged their faith as necessary in who they are, especially in their clothes. They acknowledged their family and their spiritual upbringing as greatly influencing their brand.

Communicating about their experiences

BBS communicate about their experiences, especially through social media, to build their brand. However, this can also blur the line for these sportswomen who are very mindful of curating a brand that is ‘politically correct’. They want to share their experiences, talk about their frustration, and use their platform to highlight injustices, but they are also mindful of how this will affect their reputation and funding. Despite these limitations and fears regarding control, 13 participants noted that they use social media to encourage others. SW16, a professional footballer, shared her strategy, saying, ‘People should not see us [Black women] as suffering, depressed and not having a great time. We are fun-loving people; we work hard and deserve all the accolades. I use my social media to tell these stories’.

However, this social media strategy is limited to Facebook, Instagram and TikTok. When asked about LinkedIn, five participants stated they have LinkedIn profiles but use them to create a different persona; 11 said they do not have LinkedIn profiles and do not consider it a suitable platform to communicate their experiences. However, communicating about experiences for building their brands goes beyond social media. Sportswomen indicated they share their experience through other media, such as TV and radio appearances. They are also invited to speak at schools and different events and be a mentor to many other young sportswomen.

Four semi-professionals highlighted how they share their experience with other women in their universities, stating that they are trying to change the narratives surrounding Black sportswomen. SW9, a semi-professional netball player, said: ‘When people see me play sports as a Black girl, they often look surprised, like I should be working in a restaurant or supermarket; I use such opportunity to educate and share my experiences with them’.

Similarly, three professional athletes iterated how they engage with other girls by sharing their experiences and serving as mentors.

Aligning with the faith and family strategies identified above, sportswomen also use their faith to communicate and build their brand. One of the sportswomen indicated that she is a youth pastor and mentors and supports others in sports and on their spiritual journey. SW1, a footballer, also corroborated this approach: ‘I use my Instagram to present a successful brand. In my little way, I am a success and will continue to be a success.’ SW12, another footballer, said: ‘I have a growing social media following, but I am often constrained by what the club and sponsors will think. I would not want to jeopardise my career, so I carefully do these things [activism].’ However, three Semi-professionals have a strong opinion saying they will use their popularity to make changes. SW10, a semi-professional volleyball player, said: ‘They know me in my club; I am very outspoken about inequalities and social issues, it is part of my brand, and I cannot wait for a bigger platform to do more.’

The BBS acknowledge that they must communicate their experiences as professionally and morally as possible. They acknowledge it is not easy but believe they cannot share everything they go through to protect their prospects. Social media plays a crucial role where they can curate their content, show their daily lives, and encourage others even when they are vulnerable. A Semi-professional footballer, said:

Everyone thinks playing football is your jackpot to money. They need to learn that it is a different ball game for women. How many people would I have to explain that I still work in a shop while playing football – SW6.

The sportswomen noted that they have to change the narratives around sportswomen and specifically around Black sportswomen; they feel a sense of responsibility to curate their brand and personality in a way that protrudes positivity about Black women.

Thinking beyond sport

In building their brands, the Black sportswomen acknowledged that sports are a means to a prosperous end, which they all anticipate. However, they recognise that they can only be in sports for a short time and must prepare for the future. Another key brand-building strategy for BBS thinking beyond sports is actively pursuing formal education, recognising its potential to give their brand a competitive edge. They view formal education as a means to distinguish themselves from other athletes and open future opportunities beyond sports.

Acknowledging that while many may achieve gold medals at the Olympics, possessing a master's degree sets them apart. This approach allows them to stand out and enhance their brand in a crowded and competitive sporting landscape. These are proactive actions by BBS beyond their involvement in sports. Seven participants noted that they had to get a master's degree to increase the value of their brand and be more marketable. Semi-professionals are also of this mindset; five noted that they are attending university while still doing sports. One semi-professional athlete (SW13) said, ‘I am working on both routes, as an athlete and an undergraduate student of sports psychology.’ SW8, a professional athlete representing Great Britain at the Olympics, said: ‘Being an Olympian is not enough, especially as a Black woman; you must bring something extra. I had to get an MBA and start my own sports business.’ SW16, a professional footballer, said: ‘You always need to give your brand an edge, we are all playing football, but not all of us have a master's degree.’

Many sportswomen also see huge prospects in punditry and media. Seeing Black women on TV also motivates them; they get involved in different influencing gigs, make appearances, and send greetings and personalised messages to people. They believe they need to build on their achievements in sports and monetise their brand. A semi-professional tennis player said:

I have over 10k on my Instagram, and I get people asking me to record a birthday message for their friends. I get this money, which completes what I earn from my sports. Imagine what I will be getting when I have 100k followers – SW4.

Likewise, the success of other Black sportswomen as brand ambassadors serves as motivation. SW1, a semi-professional footballer said: Seeing Alex Scott on TV was a huge inspiration for me. I want to move beyond sports and get into TV. SW3, another semi-professional athlete, said, ‘If Dina [Asher-smith] and KJT [Katarina Johnson-Thompson] can do it, I can do it; I know I need to work on my brand to increase my chances of getting endorsements.’ This insight aligns with previous findings (Li et al., 2021; Toffoletti & Thorpe, 2018) that social media is an important platform these sportswomen use to build their brand beyond sports.

Starting a business is also another way in which these sportswomen are building their brand beyond sports. Four participants shared their entrepreneurial activities, including a fashion line, business consultancy and personal coaching. SW8, a professional athlete, said: ‘My followers are increasing, and more people are interested in what I do, so I have started a T-shirt business, something small with sports themes, quotes and words, and I hope this will grow, possibly acquired by Nike [she laughed].’ These women believe they have built a personal brand that can be extended into a different business line. Moreover, as Mogaji et al. (2021) noted, if the sportswomen develop their brand enough, it can guarantee their financial wellbeing.

Discussion

Theoretical contributions

This study presented the intersectionality of race, role and gender to establish how sportswomen develop and manage their brands. The present study contributes to the limited work on this intersectionality beyond the focus on British-Asian female footballers (Ratna, 2013, 2014) and Black solo sportswomen such as the South African Caster Semenya (Adjepong, 2022) and the American Serena Williams (Litchfield et al., 2018). We have provided a holistic view of the group, highlighted their lived experiences and offered comprehensive knowledge of these sportswomen’s brand-building efforts. We extend intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1992) to focus on sports and brand identity. We extended the human brand pyramid (Mogaji et al., 2022) to recognise the intersectionality of race and gender, where sportswomen explore self-branding through the lens of their role as Black women human. We also contributed to the model of athlete brand image (MABI), where sportswomen work on their attractive appearance and marketable lifestyle for brand building (Arai et al., 2014).

The study introduces the concepts of ‘level of blackness’ (determined by the racial backgrounds of both parents – if both parents are Black or mixed race – affecting the skin colour) and ‘level of Britishness’ (based on whether the individual was born in Britain or naturalised) as factors influencing the branding efforts of BBS. In line with the model of athlete brand image (MABI) and the human brand pyramid (Mogaji et al., 2022), BBS are conscious and mindful of their skin colour, which contributes to attractiveness and beauty, influencing the perception of their brand, particularly when compared to mixed-race and white women. Drawing on the well-established social psychological perspective on the stigma of accents (Gaffney & Côté, 2020; Gluszek & Dovidio, 2010; Sattarapu et al., 2023), it is understandable to observe the sportswomen's deliberate focus on enhancing their physical appearance.

Similarly, the level of Britishness, which involves the intersectionality of race, country of birth, and parental origins, plays a role in shaping the identities of sportswomen. It prompts them to question their sense of belonging to the country. This aspect of intersectionality can also be examined within the context of football players who might opt to represent another nation. For instance, Wilfried Zaha, born in Ivory Coast, was naturalised as British but chose to play for Ivory Coast. Likewise, Timothy Weah, son of the President of Liberia, plays for the United States. In tennis, Naomi Osaka, a Japanese professional tennis player, could also represent Haiti. This intersectionality warrants further exploration through research, extending beyond sportswomen, to understand how it contributes to the development and management of identities among athletes.

The study extends the scope of Mogaji et al. (2022)’s human brand pyramid, recognising the relevance of physical and personal characteristics in building personal brands. We posit that while all humans are brands, the personal characteristics and the intersectionality of identity (Ratna, 2013) must be recognised, even though women have limited opportunities in sports. Being a Black woman poses an additional challenge for brand building, unlike being a White woman in the same team, who does not face the same levels of discrimination. We also establish that these personal characteristics and intersectionalities, such as disability, religion and sexuality, could complicate brand building exercise (Ahmad & Thorpe, 2020; Baker et al., 2022a; Hu et al., 2023). These individuals often have to navigate their characteristics by acknowledging themselves as a brand and developing and managing it.

The research identifies the dimensions of faith, family, friends, and fans in brand building and positioning. It has been established that Black sportswomen in the UK take pride in their faith as a means of building their brand. Additionally, they exhibit a spiritual undertone to their personalities; some even describe themselves as ‘women of God’ and incorporate emojis with religious inclinations into their social media bios. This aspect further contributes to the religious dimension of the intersectional identity dynamics (Ratna, 2013) among these sportswomen.

Practical implications

Content creation and social media will continue to be important channels for changing the narratives about a sportswoman’s brand. Furthermore, sportswomen are expected to take ownership and put effort into building and managing their brands (Ramon & Rojas-Torrijos, 2022; Thorpe, 2017). Beyond Instagram, sportswomen should explore other platforms, such as Twitter and LinkedIn, provided they have the resources to manage them. Irrespective of being in a team sport or a solo athlete, sportswomen should endeavour to engage with their fans and build networks and relationships; they can even employ a professional to help manage their brand. Giving back through philanthropy, charity, and social activism can also help enhance their brand. Sportswomen should, however, do what they are comfortable doing. The connections between brand building and activism are relative; therefore, sportswomen should be mindful. Maintaining optimal mental health is also needed for building a personal brand; sportswomen should take care of themselves, be willing to slow down and not feel pressured to deliver, be ready to seek help and assistance and say no if they are uncomfortable doing something.

Talent agencies should recognise the intersection of their clients’ identities. For example, the experiences of a White male in America playing basketball differ from that of an African woman in South Africa trying to get to the world stage. Beyond gender and race, there is possible intersectionality with religion, sexuality and pregnancy. Talent managers need a person-centred approach and personalised strategies to enhance their clients’ brands, especially Black sportswomen who have been marginalised for many years. They should be mindful of the offers they bring and the type of deals and endorsements they take up (Andrews & Crawford, 2021; Mogaji et al., 2022). These women should not be sexualised or deemed unattractive compared to white sportswomen; instead, they should be appreciated for their hard work, professionalism and success on the field. Talent managers need to respect the authenticity of these sportswomen and not challenge them to change or adopt an uncomfortable persona (Jensen & Cornwell, 2021).

Teams, clubs and governing bodies are also responsible for their athletes’ overall well-being. This responsibility goes beyond just their physical well-being and encapsulates their mental health and financial well-being (Mogaji et al., 2021; Scelles & Pfister, 2021). Those approaching retirement could explore subsequent options with the help of their teams, governing bodies and management teams. There should be support in place to address any issue of racism or misogyny; these sportswomen should feel safe and assured that the leadership has their best interests at heart. More importantly, it will be worthwhile to ensure diversity at the various leadership levels and have women, particularly Black sportswomen, in leadership positions, as they can better understand the struggles of other Black sportswomen and speak for them if needed. Black sportswomen could benefit from establishing a BBS network that offers support, mentorship and networking opportunities.

Brand consultants, content creators, and digital marketers have a crucial role to play in assisting sportswomen to develop and monetise their personal brands. This process can commence with the creation of a logo suitable for merchandise or a website that narrates their journey. Collaborating with management and talent teams is important to sculpt their brand image. Moreover, exploring opportunities such as NFTs (Non-Fungible Tokens), metaverse and these emerging technologies could be beneficial (Baker et al., 2022b; Koohang et al., 2023). Such support is not exclusively limited to professional sportswomen with aspirations of becoming prominent brands. While full-service brand agency is an option, collaborating with a freelancer well-versed in brand identity or a digital marketer skilled in social media management, or even a freelance publicist capable of enhancing engagement and securing press coverage, could be equally effective.

Educational institutions also help enhance the brand identities of these sportswomen. As indicated by the research, many athletes were proud to showcase their university affiliations on their profile and felt a sense of connection with their institution. Thus, more investment could be made in these areas: universities could sponsor and support Black sportswomen, creating opportunities and helping them achieve their dreams. Importantly, for those thinking of developing their entrepreneurial skills, universities can offer business courses that can help sportswomen develop their business ideas and understand sports marketing and the sports industry.

Conclusion

We set out to understand how BBS are developing and managing their brands. We found that these women build their brand by being exceptional, exploring partnerships, sharing their experiences and thinking beyond sports. We made significant theoretical contributions, especially regarding the intersectionality of identity and self-branding and offered practical implications for different stakeholders. Considering this is a qualitative study contextualised in one country, it is imperative to acknowledge that its findings cannot be generalised. This limitation opens opportunities for future research. For example, future research could adopt a quantitative methodology to quantify the experiences and strategies of Black sportswomen. However, the sample size of Black sportswomen could be a limitation. Additionally, future studies can explore the experiences of other Black sportswomen, especially African American and African sportswomen, to understand their brand-building strategies. The concepts of blackness and britishness should also be further explored as it shapes a sportsperson's brand identity building. In addition, Furthermore, future studies can explore the role of sports agencies and institutions in building brands for sportspeople.

Acknowledgement

We like to thank the participants in this study, sparing their time and providing the qualitative data for this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Appendix A

Interview Protocol and Interview Guide

Interview Protocol: A semi-structured interview, recorded and transcribed.

Questions:

(Thank the individual for participating in this interview. Assure her that the interview will be recorded. Reassure of confidentiality of responses and potential future interviews)

Background

• Tell me a bit about yourself?

• How did you get into sports?

• What has been the highlight of your career?

• How would you describe your experience as a Black British sportswoman?

• Would you say your race has an influence on your experience?

• How about compared to other sportswomen?

Branding background

• Would you say sportswomen are brand?

• How would you describe yourself as a brand?

• Are you making efforts to build your brand as a sportswoman?

• How would you describe your brand-building strategies?

The branding strategies

• What do you do to build your brand?

• How has your racial background influenced your branding strategies?

• Have you sought professional assistance in building your brand?

• Do you work with a sports agency or talent management team?

• Do you own a website? Do you have merchandise?

• Do you have plans for that? If not why aren’t you considering it?

• What are the challenges in building your brand?

The branding outcomes

• Have you had the opportunity of being a brand ambassador and endorse a brand?

• How would you describe the experience?

• If not, what do you think has been the challenge?

• Do you think your race presents a challenge to being a brand ambassador?

• What are you doing to build your brand and make yourself appealing to brands?

• If not, why haven’t you considered it?

Individual sports brand

• Do you think being individual athletes (or team athletes) influences your branding strategies

• What are your expectations with regards to the clubs?

• Do you think your type of sports affects your brand?

• How have your teammate contributed to your branding journey?

• How do you manage your individual brand within your team’s brand?

• How do you think your team’s brand affects your personal brand?

• Beyond sports, what are you doing to build your brand?

Other influences

• How have your family and friends influenced your brand?

• Would you say you are religious, and has it shaped your branding strategies?

• How would you describe the influence of your team and governing bodies?

• What do you think can be done to help sportswomen build their brand?

Appendix B

Summary of sub themes and key themes

Table

s/n	First-order concepts Child nodes (n=76) Phase 3 of thematic analysis	Second-order concepts Parent nodes (n=19) Phase 4 of thematic analysis	Aggregated dimensions Main themes (n=5) Phase 5 of thematic analysis
1.	Recognising the challenge	Huge demands for excellence	Being exceptional
2.	Extra challenge as a Black woman
3.	Conform to standards
4.	Recognising the limited opportunities	White privilege
5.	Different from white counterparts.
6.	No white privilege
7.	Bias towards light-skinned women
8.	Beauty doesn’t give a pass.
9.	Support network	Emotional stamina
10.	Prove you are good enough
11.	Shade of ‘blackness’	Physical appearance
12.	Using make-up
13.	Wearing wigs
14.	Looking beautiful
15.	Look out for partnerships	Solo effort	Seeking partnership
16.	Look out for gigs
17.	Knock on doors for opportunities
18.	Network
19.	Aspire for positive outcome
20.	Establish legitimacy	Solo responsibilities
21.	Proof credibility
22.	Avoid being sexualised
23.	Hard work to build brand	Getting a team
24.	Hire professional talent agents
25.	Create the platform
26.	Expand reach and network
27.	Take your time	The liberty
28.	Enjoy the freedom
29.	No pressure to be pro
30.	Developing personal values	Values	Remaining themselves
31.	Retaining personal values
32.	Balancing personal and professional values
33.	Not compromising	Challenging situations
34.	Recognising uncomfortable situation
35.	Aware of existing institutional limitations
36.	Trying something new
37.	Born in the UK	The level of ‘Britishism’
38.	Immigrated to the UK
39.	Remembering the heritage
40.	Fly the flag of other country
41.	Maintaining link to another country
42.	Faith,	External support
43.	Family
44.	Friends
45.	Fans
46.	Sharing experiences	social media	Communicating about their experiences
47.	Talking about frustration
48.	Providing insights into life as an athlete
49.	Exploring other social media (LinkedIn)	Other media
50.	TV (punditry)
51.	Radio appearances (interviews)
52.	Print media (columnist)
53.	Politically correct	Being cautious
54.	Highlight injustices
55.	Impact on reputation
56.	Impact on funding
57.	Schools	Speaking and support platforms
58.	Universities
59.	Sports clubs
60.	Different events
61.	Religious centres
62.	Mentor to many other young sportswomen
63.	Family platforms
64.	Sports are a means to a prosperous end	The future plan	Thinking beyond sport
65.	Preparing for the future
66.	Recognising financial vulnerability
67.	Getting formal education (first degree)	Education
68.	Post graduate education (Second degree, MBA, PhD)
69.	Additional training and qualifications
70.	Punditry and media	Action plans
71.	Starting a business
72.	Fashion line
73.	Business consultancy
74.	Personal coaching
75.	Tech products
76.	Brand endorsement