Resilient education facilities with special focus on classrooms to be compatible with the COVID-19 crisis

ABSTRACT

In recent months, the World Health Organization (WHO) expressed concern about the spread of a new pandemic after the COVID-19 pandemic, which had a significant impact on education. UNICEF says Over 168 million children’s classrooms around the world have been shuttered. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to identify the criteria and requirements of resilient design for classrooms to avoid closures during crises. Researchers have addressed the relationship between spaces and the spread of viruses inside them, so the research assumes that there is a relationship between the design criteria of classrooms and the spread of viruses inside them. Hence, the research methodology consists of a qualitative approach then comparative analysis. The first part involves analyzing the literature review to identify a design matrix that includes design criteria for classrooms. The research has identified four resilient design criteria and their requirements for classrooms, such as 1- Epidemic Prevention, 2-Climate Change Adaptation, 3-Integration of Technological Advancements, and 4- Support Advanced Education. The research focused on primary school due to the high infection rates of the Omicron variant among children, according to a report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Therefore, the second part involves a comparative analysis of four classrooms in government primary schools using the design matrix. The case studies Two within Egypt and Two outside Egypt. Finally, the results include an evaluation of the four proposed resilient design criteria for the classrooms and which one is the most resilient and adaptable during the crisis.

KEYWORDS:

• Resilience
• resilient design criteria
• classrooms design criteria
• COVID-19 pandemic
• precautionary measures
• human behavior

Introduction

Our physical spaces have undergone tremendous transformation because of the COVID-19 issue since they are essential for enhancing users’ health and well-being [1] Therefore, the two main elements that facilitate the transmission of illnesses are the spaces and their indoor environmental quality, and human behavior within these spaces as shown in (Figure 1). This requires finding a solution to reduce the spread of epidemics by considering both factors together.

Figure 1. The mutual relationship between design and environmental criteria and human behavior in educational space. Source: author.

Despite viruses being small and, they have changed according to type of spaces and different cultures. Therefore, viruses impact our lives and change our daily habits [1]. Because of the COVID-19 virus spreading over the world, UNICEF) [2] announced in April 2020 that approximately 150 countries had completely canceled classes.

Epidemics spread through spaces and its indoor environmental quality

Spaces have an impact on viruses’ dynamics, user health, prevention of viruses, and their elimination [1], Not only the spaces, but also Indoor Environment Quality can influence the virus’s ability to spread, and ventilation is one of the important environmental criteria, especially in densely spaces.

According to [3], poor ventilation can lead to respiratory symptoms in students. It is important to have good indoor air quality (IAQ) in classrooms to ensure the well-being of students and teachers [4]. Due to the worldwide health crisis, the (WHO) recommended different countries use natural ventilation in classrooms [5], to avoid the chance of sickness. Other environmental criteria such as humidity, temperature and lighting also have a relationship to the spread of viruses in space [6].

Epidemics spread through human behavior

The transmission of viruses is significantly influenced by human activity, through indirect or direct contact [7]. Direct contact such as shaking hands or hugging. The (WHO) has issued recommendations to reduce the possibility of direct contact, including, maintaining physical distance, wearing masks, and implementing respiratory etiquette [5]. Indirect contact can lead to the transmission of infectious epidemics through contaminated surfaces, as the viruses can remain on surfaces for a brief time and cause an infection in another person [8].

The research aims to determine the criteria and requirements of resilient design for classrooms, and to study the design criteria, environmental criteria, and precautionary measures, followed in the classrooms of four government Primary schools. The research presents a design matrix to analyze the design criteria and the requirements for the resilient design in the classrooms in Primary schools.

Literature review

Studies have tackled the concept of resilience through risks and disasters.

The meaning of resilience

The (UNISDR) United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction defines resilience as a system’s capacity to withstand and quickly recover from the effects of hazards, and the maintenance of its core function.

Resilience engineering (RE)

The term ‘Resilience engineering’ (RE) emerged from resilience and it refers to the purposeful planning systems and building with resilience in mind, and adaptability through risks and disasters [9], and safety concerns in facilities and systems are the main focus of resilience engineering [9,10]. (RE) has been applied to various disciplines such as medicine, education, and others [11]. According to [12], resilience is defined in architecture as the ability to maintain a building or facility’s functionality and accommodate new demands.

Architecture and pandemics

According to [13] since the 19th century, one important factor in reducing the danger of pandemics has been architecture. The response to past epidemics such as tuberculosis and the plague led to the ‘hygiene movement’, which established design principles in modern architecture. The historical main approaches to combating bacterial pandemics have been reducing physical contact between individuals and ensuring the quality of the indoor environment of spaces. In recent warnings about future pandemics, governments have adopted traditional measures from the 19th century related to individuals such as wearing face masks, social distancing, and lockdowns. For the built environment such as lighting, ventilation, temperature, and humidity within spaces.

Schools and pandemics

(Sheikh, A) [14] summarize three global strategies are employed to facilitate a secure return to school: School closure persisting until an effective vaccine, reduction of the number of students attending, and use of Hybrid learning. According to (Fantini, M) [15] One of the safety precautions for reopening schools could be to divide pupils into smaller social groups to maintain social distance and move classes outdoors.

Design, environmental criteria, and precautionary measures in classroom

Classroom design criteria

Classroom form

The traditional shape of the classroom is rectangular and square shape or can be the (pentagon – hexagon) shape [16].

Classroom density and area

(Table 1) shows the number of students, classroom area, and student area in the classroom.

Table 1. Shows classroom density and area for primary level [17].

	NO. of Students		Classroom Area (m^2)		Student Area in Classroom (m^2)
level	MIN	MAX	MIN	MAX	MIN	MAX
Primary	24	30–36	44	58	1.6	2,00

Precautionary measures for direct contact in classroom (social distancing between students)

To maintain social distancing in educational settings, the following measures are recommended by (UNICEF) [2]: Increase the distance between seats (1 to 2 m) – Use signs, floor markings, and barriers -Move classes outdoors – Use plastic barriers to separate between [18] - Use flexible furniture – The number of students in classrooms ranges from 24 to 36 students [19].

Classroom facilities

Board

The recommended dimensions are 1.80 m × 1 m for the whiteboard or smartboard.

Furniture

The average height of students ranges from 130 cm to 160 cm. Recommended sizes for student tables and seats: tables height from 50 cm to 65 cm, seats height from 28 cm to 35 cm, and tables width from 55 cm to 65 cm [17].

Technological techniques used in classroom

[20] discusses the technological techniques that can be used in classroom:

1. Audio aids: are instructional devices that allow the message to be heard but not seen, such as tape recorders.

2. visual aids: can help to enhance the learning process by using (LCD) monitors, and Projector.

3. Audio-visual aids: They enable learners to see and hear the material being taught including videos, and CD-ROMs.

4. Student Interaction and Participation Techniques: by using Interactive whiteboards, laptops, and smart screens.

Precautionary measures for developing educational infrastructure in classroom

There are several modern technologies that have been recently used as alternatives to traditional methods. These technologies include online learning platforms, virtual and augmented reality.

1. Virtual Reality Technologies: Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE) that utilizes projected images on all walls of a room using screens [21]. that allows users to rotate and look in all directions.

2. Augmented Virtuality: Augmented Virtual Reality (AV) relies on the analysis and integration of virtual reality (VR) with the real world, students can comprehend and perceive nonvisual information through three-dimensional scenes combined with any virtual scene that is introduced [22].

3. Interactive Architecture: it helps to add flexibility to the interior space as Holographic Visual Walls, A method for displaying objects or sceneries in three dimensions is called ‘Holography’. The term ‘Hologram’ describes a technique known as Three-dimensional holography that records objects in three dimensions [23].

Teaching methods

Traditional education

Traditional education is an educational system that focuses on delivering knowledge to students face-to-face. Technological tools and methods are rarely used in it [24].

Hybrid education

Hybrid education also known as blended learning refers to the integration of live education with distance learning. Teachers use a mix of both methods to facilitate lesson delivery [25].

Distance learning

Commonly referred to as E-learning, is a type of education that utilizes a variety of technology to communicate between teachers and students who are physically apart by using the internet, e-mail, and video conferencing [26].

Environmental criteria in classroom

Orientation

To minimize direct sunlight penetration into buildings, classroom blocks should be located on longer north-facing facades [27].

Natural lighting

Windows are often installed in classrooms to provide natural lighting without direct sunlight penetration and heat [27].

Natural ventilation

Ventilation is the process of taking out heat, moisture and pollutants from a zone and replacing them with clean air [28]. Openings should be on both sides of the space in the lower and upper areas to maintain the flow of natural air inside the classroom [27].

The area of windows

The area of windows should not be less than 20% of the surface area of the classroom. The windows facing outside rise 0.90 meters above the classroom floor, while the windows facing the corridor rise 1.80 meters above the classroom floor [29].

Precautionary measures for (IAQ) of the classroom

(a) Natural Lighting: Direct daylight has been known to destroy germs in buildings, stop infectious outbreaks from spreading within structures, and sun exposure can enhance immunity and resistance to viruses. [30]

(b) Artificial Lighting by (UV) radiation: Can destroy the DNA of viruses and bacteria, Examples of (UV) radiation include (UVGI) which refers to Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation. It is installed on the walls or ceilings. it has no negative effects on people’s health [31] and can be utilized in a variety of areas, like Schools. [18]

(c) Ventilation is an important precautionary measure that is closely related to controlling the spread of infection through the air. It can be through (Natural- Mechanical Ventilation). [32]

-Natural Ventilation: increasing building ventilation is one of the essential steps in lowering the risk of viruses, according to [33]. Although ventilation cannot totally prevent infections, it can lower the risk of being exposed to the virus. [34]

-Mechanical Ventilation: HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems are crucial for preventing the spread of epidemics [35]. In the case of pandemics such as COVID-19, providing high-efficiency air purifiers. For example, High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters eliminate at least 99.97% of germs, and small particles. It can help control the spread of viruses within spaces [36] and help to increase the flow of outdoor air volume by 100% [37]. It can be used in classrooms. [38]

Non-thermal plasma technology, or the (Air PHX) system, is a different kind of mechanical air purifier that removes airborne viruses by 90-99% and gives users cleaner air. [39]

(d) Temperature and Humidity: have an impact on the transmission of COVID-19. it is important to consider these factors when designing buildings, the ideal interior temperature is between 17 and 27^ο c, and humidity levels should be between 40% and 60% to stop virus spread [40]. Research also indicates that the required temperatures to eliminate the virus between 56 and 65^ο c, but this is not available for (HVAC) systems alone [41]. Early in the design (HVAC) systems should be incorporated to solve issues with indoor humidity and temperature.

(e) Indoor Plants: can absorb many harmful environmental chemicals [42], Using indoor plants such as Snake plant, Aloe vera, Cactus [34] is one of the least expensive methods to purify the air. Another technique to create healthy buildings is to create movable wall plants that can be placed indoors. [18]

Finishing and surface materials

Materials are crucial to the design of schools. For flooring finishes recommended to use non-slip materials to ensure student safety. To maintain the building’s thermal comfort, clay ceilings are suggested for the building to reduce temperature.

Precautionary measures for indirect contact in classroom

a-materials that provide protection against viruses on different surfaces as shown in (Table 2).

Table 2. The survival period of viruses on varied materials [43].

Materials	Viruses	Temperature	Survival period
Iron	HCoV, MersCoV, SARS-CoV, COVID-19	20–24	2 to 28 d
copper	SARS-CoV, COVID-19	21–23	4–8 h
Aluminium	HCoV	21	0.08 to 0.5 d
wood	SARS-CoV, COVID-19	22	1 to 2 d
glass	HCoV, SARS-CoV, COVID-19	20–25	2 to 28 d
fabric	SARS-CoV, COVID-19	22	1 to 5 d
paper	SARS-CoV, COVID-19	23	30 min-3 h
ceramics	HCoV	21	Less than 5 d
soil	SARS-CoV,	20	4 to 5 d
Vinyl	COVID-19	20	Less than 28 d
Plastic	COVID-19	21–23	3–4 d

Copper alloys contain properties to make it an effective material in fighting against viruses in 2 hours [44]. because copper may break down the DNA of viruses [45]. fabric coverings can also be used such as vinyl, to reduce the rate of germs [45].

b-Finishes that provide protection against microbes for walls and floors.

For wall recommended to use antimicrobial paints and coatings [46], such as those Bio-Cote offers. It can reduce microbes by up to 86%. For floor recommended to bamboo, cork, and wood. These materials can provide protection against microbes [47].

Colors

Misha Khaliq [1] has shown that each color has an impact on mood. Red, Orange, and Yellow encourage and improve concentration and make one feel inspired and creative. Blue and Purple aid in reducing blood pressure and soothing. Green aids alleviate anxiety and tension.

According to the literature review and analysis, the study identified resilient design criteria for classrooms (Epidemic Prevention – Climate Change Adaptation – Incorporating Technological Advancements – Supporting Advanced Education) (Figure 2). The research also determines the requirements of these criteria as shown in (Table 3).

Figure 2. Resilient design criteria. source: author.

Table 3. The design matrix of resilient design criteria and requirements in classroom. Source: author.

Methods and materials

The methodology in this study includes two approaches: 1- Qualitative approach by analysis of literature review, to determine the resilient design criteria and requirements, as shown (Table 3). 2- Comparative analysis for classrooms design of four government primary schools 1- The Bawtry Mayflower School in Bawtry, England, United Kingdom. 2- Rathregan National School in the village of Batterstown, Ireland, northwestern Europe. 3- New Minya for basic education in Minya city, Egypt. 4- Sons of the revolution School in Minya City, Egypt as shown in (Figure 3) to determine the extent to which they achieved the resilient design criteria.

Figure 3. The location of government primary schools.

Reasons for selecting schools: First, the constants reasons are that 1- All the schools are government primary schools, and 2- The schools were closed for 16 weeks according to UNESCO reports [48]. Second, the variables reasons are that 1-For schools inside Egypt, they are all similar in design. Schools were identified specifically in Minya city due to their proximity to the author’s place of residence, ease of filming, and collecting data. 2- For schools outside Egypt, different precautionary measures were taken to prevent diseases, and different Facilities and infrastructure were used which will be explained in the analytical part, as shown (Table 4). The following figures illustrate what was used in the classrooms of the four schools (Figures 4,5,6,7,8).

Figure 4. Design criteria in case studies.

Figure 5. Infrastructure and facilities in case studies.

Figure 6. Teaching methods in case studies.

Figure 7. Environmental criteria in case studies [49–51].

Figure 8. Finishing and surface materials in case studies.

Table 4. A comparative analysis between the classrooms in four case studies. Source: author.

Design criteria of classrooms

Design criteria and precautionary measures used in case studies classrooms (Figure 4).

Classroom facilities and infrastructure

Facilities and infrastructure in classrooms for case studies (Figure 5).

Teaching methods

Teaching Methods in classrooms for case studies (Figure 6).

Environmental criteria of classrooms

Environmental Criteria and precautionary measures in classrooms for case studies (Figure 7).

Finishing and surface materials

The surface finishes and materials used in classrooms and their precautionary measures in case studies (Figure 8).

The research presents a comparative analysis of the four case studies by using the design matrix, as shown in (Table 4).

Results and discussion

The results are divided into three main parts: The outcomes of case studies and the literature review:

Results of literature review

In this part, the research presents the results of evaluating the requirements of the four criteria for resilient design, as defined by the research in Table 3, which must be considered when designing classrooms, they are (Prevention of Pandemics – Adaptation to Climate Change – Incorporate Technological Advancements – Supporting Advanced Education). To achieve resilient and adaptable classrooms during crises, 161 points must be achieved, which is the total of the design, environmental Criteria, and precautionary measures points defined by the literature. These points are the ones that meet the requirements of the proposed four resilient design criteria. It was observed that Supporting Advanced Education within the classrooms recorded the highest evaluation 35.3%, achieving 57 points out of 161 points. Prevention of epidemics within the classrooms recorded 30%, achieving 48 points out of 161 points. Adaptation to climate change within the classrooms recorded 21.7%, achieving 35 points out of 161 points. Finally, incorporating technological advancements within the classrooms recorded 13%, achieving 21 points out of 161 points as shown in (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Evaluation of resilient design requirements for classrooms. source: Author.

Results of case studies

This part shows the results of the comparative analysis between the four case studies mentioned in (Table 4). where each of the (Design Criteria – Equipment and Infrastructure – Different Educational Methods – Environmental Criteria – Finishes and Different Surface Materials) for classrooms with consideration of precautionary measures and the four resilient design criteria. The following (Table 5) and (Figure 10) show the results of the analysis for each classroom of the four schools and the percentage of achieving resilient design in the classrooms.

Figure 10. Evaluation of resilient design requirements for classrooms in four schools. source: author.

Table 5. Evaluation of the resilient design requirements of classrooms in schools.

School	Epidemics	Climate Change	Advanced Technology	Advanced Education
Sons of the revolution school	35%	54%	24%	47%
New Minya for basic education school	42%	54%	19%	46%
Rathregan National School	52%	63%	38%	60%
Bawtry Mayflower School	58%	66%	52%	63%

Source: Author.

Similarities and differences between case studies

This part explains the similarities and differences in the design criteria and precautionary measures used in case studies.

Design criteria in classrooms

The form

The rectangular shape was used in all classrooms.

The density and classroom area varied among the schools, as recommended [17]

1. Density: International classrooms ranged from 32 to 36 students per class, as recommended [17], but Egyptian classrooms ranged from 42 to 50 students per class.

2. Classroom Area: Three classrooms (2 International −1 Egyptian) used 45 m² to 48 m² per class, as recommended [17], but New Minya school for basic Education used 51 m² per class.

3. Student Area: All classrooms didn’t implement the required student space inside the classroom, as recommended [17]. International classrooms implemented a 1.30 m² to 1.40 m² per student in class, but Egyptian classrooms implemented a 1.00 m² to 1.10 m² per student in class.

Precautionary measures for classroom design

New Minya for basic education school implemented social distancing between students in classroom as recommended [2]. Two classrooms (International – Egyptian) used banners to promote safety. Three classrooms (2 international − 1 Egyptian) transferred some lessons to outdoor spaces. All classrooms adjusted the seating to achieve flexibility as recommended [19]. Separate spaces, barriers between students, and changes in class schedules were not implemented in all classrooms, as recommended [2,18].

Classroom facilities and infrastructure

Whiteboards vs. smartboards

All classrooms used whiteboards except Bawtry Mayflower classrooms that used both.

Furniture

The required standards for designing student desks and tables were followed in all classrooms, as recommended [17].

Educational technology

None of the classrooms used Audio aids, while three classrooms (2 international − 1 Egyptian) used visual aids such as projectors. Bawtry Mayflower classrooms used LCD screens.

Infrastructure development

None of the classrooms used all the recommended technologies such as (CAVE, VR glasses, Augmented Virtuality, and Holographic Visual Walls.

Teaching methods

Regarding traditional learning: it has been implemented in all classrooms. Hybrid Learning: it has been implemented in only international classrooms. Distance learning has been applied only in Bawtry Mayflower School. Egyptian schools applied distance learning through WhatsApp groups during the crisis, according to interviews with some school principals.

Environmental criteria

All classrooms have been oriented toward the north as recommended [27]. Natural and Artificial lighting has been used in all classrooms as recommended [27]. Natural and Artificial ventilation has been used in all classrooms. Openings have been designed according to the required standards in all classrooms as recommended [27,28], and [29].

Regarding the precautionary measures for environmental standards in classrooms

1. Artificial Lighting: (UVGI) technology wasn’t used in all classrooms as recommended [31].

2. Artificial Ventilation: (HEPA) filters were used in Rathregan National School as recommended [36,37], and the Air PHX technology wasn’t used in all classrooms.

3. Temperature and Humidity: The temperatures in the cities didn’t range from 17 and 27^οc. The humidity was approximately 40-60% in Bawtry and Minya city.

4. Indoor Plants: No indoor plants were used in all classrooms.

Finishing and surface materials

Ceiling

Light colors were used in all classrooms.

Floor

Ceramic wasn’t used in all classrooms, wood and fabric were used in international classrooms only, as recommended [43], and Cement Mosaic Tiles was used in Egyptian classrooms only.

Paint

Light colors were used in all classrooms. For doors and windows (Wood was used in (1 international − 2 Egyptian) classrooms, glass was used in all classrooms, and Aluminum, was used in (2 international −1 Egyptian) classrooms. As for colors, white was used in all classrooms, and orange was used only in Rathregan National School.

Precautionary measures for antiviral materials

1. For floors: Wood and fabric were used in only international classrooms, as recommended [43], and cork boards weren’t used in all classrooms.

2. For walls: Antibacterial paints were used in Bawtry Mayflower School, recommended [46].

3. For different surface materials: Iron was used in (1 international − 2 Egyptian) classrooms. Copper, Ceramic, vinyl, and soil were not used in all classrooms. Aluminum was used in (2 international −1 Egyptian) classrooms. Wood, Glass, Fabric, and Plastic were used in all classrooms as recommended [43].

Finally, the following (Figure 11), illustrates the total achieved by each school from the resilient design criteria in the classrooms, totaling 161 points. Sons of the revolution School achieved resilience by 42%, New Minya for basic education school achieved resilience by 43%, Rathregan National School achieved resilience by 55%, and finally Bawtry Mayflower School achieved resilience by 61%, it is considered the most resilient school according to the analysis.

Figure 11. Evaluation of classrooms resilience in schools.

Source: Author

Conclusion

The research highlights the importance of rethinking classroom design to make it more resilient and adaptable during crises to avoid closure. To achieve this, it is necessary to apply resilient design criteria, which is the main aim of this study. Guidelines for resilient classrooms, as follows:

• To Adapt to Pandemic Requirements:

For design criteria, apply a minimum limit of the number of students inside the classroom, which is less than 20 students. The classroom area should preferably be larger than 48 m², and the student area inside the classroom should be 2.50 m². It is necessary to apply precautionary measures to control direct contact between students inside the classroom by applying physical distancing between students, placing barriers between them, conducting lessons outdoors, and changing lesson schedules. For educational technologies, it is preferable to have a personal laptop or tablet for each student inside the classroom to avoid sharing tools between students. For teaching methods, it is preferable to apply hybrid or distance learning methods. For environmental standards, it is preferable to rely on natural ventilation and lighting as a precautionary measure inside the classroom. It is also necessary to maintain appropriate temperatures and humidity levels that provide thermal comfort for the student inside the classroom. For finishes, antiviral paints are used for walls. Wood and fabric are suitable materials for classroom floors to prevent the spread of diseases. For surface materials inside the classroom, materials that are easy to clean and reduce the period of virus survival on them, such as copper, aluminum, wood, glass, paper, plastic, fabric, and plastic are preferred.

• To Adapt to Climate Change:

For environmental criteria, the classroom should be directed toward the north. It is necessary to rely on natural ventilation and lighting and to consider the special conditions for the dimensions and area of openings inside the classroom. It is necessary to maintain the temperature so that it does not exceed 27 degrees and the humidity level does not exceed 50% inside the classroom. HVAC systems are used to provide appropriate ventilation, temperature, and humidity for the classroom. For surface materials and finishes, natural materials such as wood and synthetic materials such as fabric are used for their good effect on thermal comfort inside the space.

• To Support Technological Advancement:

For classroom services, it is preferable to use a smart board, audio, and visual aids such as projectors and LCD screens, and modern technological techniques such as CAVE technology, VR glasses, hologram technology, and others. For teaching methods, methods that rely on computers and the Internet, such as distance learning, are applied. For environmental standards, modern lighting technologies such as UVGI technology and HEBA artificial ventilation technology are used.

• To support Advanced Education:

For design standards, the optimal limits for classroom density, classroom area, and student area inside the classroom are applied. It is also important to consider the possibility of modifying and changing furniture inside the classroom to achieve flexibility or using external spaces. For infrastructure and equipment, it is necessary to use modern educational technologies inside the classrooms to support and apply different teaching methods such as hybrid learning and distance learning. In addition, it is important to consider the design standards for seats and tables to suit different age groups of classroom users and to develop the infrastructure to be able to use modern technological techniques. The environmental standards and modern techniques inside the classroom are considered to provide better comfort for users. For finishes, light colors are recommended for walls and ceilings. The floors are made of safe, non-slip, and easy-to-clean materials.

It is important to remember that the data provided is based on a comparison of classrooms in four government schools. The results of the study can be applied in a variety of educational contexts, and further research is needed in other educational spaces, such as outdoor areas or residential learning spaces that have emerged to meet the requirements of hybrid and distance learning.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).