Japanese health and physical education teachers’ positioning in teaching Japanese language learners in high school physical education

ABSTRACT

Background

In recent years, the number of Japanese Language Learner (JLL) students, or children who speak a language other than Japanese and require Japanese language instruction, has been rapidly increasing in Japanese schools. Successful inclusion of students who use Japanese as a second language in the classroom creates opportunities for all students to engage with multiple languages and learn new cultures, backgrounds, history, and aspects of diversity that help them strengthen their overall cognitive abilities [Sato, T., and S. R. Hodge. 2009. “Asian International Doctoral Students’ Experiences at Two American University: Assimilation, Accommodation, and Resistance.” Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 2(3): 136-148]. In particular, physical education (PE) is considered an academic subject that can be a powerful tool to promote peace, tolerance, and understanding by bringing people together across boundaries, cultures, and religions by promoting the concepts of teamwork, fairness, discipline, and respect for the opponent in a game or activity [Beutler, I. 2008. “Sport Serving Development and Peace: Achieving the Goals of the United Nations Through Sport.” Sport in Society 11 (4): 359–369]. The purpose of this study is to describe and explain Japanese high school health and physical education (HPE) teachers’ positioning of themselves and others, as shown through a storyline, when they teach and assist Japanese Language Learner (JLL) students in academic and social contexts.

Participants and setting

Seven HPE teachers participated in this study by sharing their thoughts, opinions, and experiences related to teaching JLL students in PE. The teachers had between 3 and 23 years of experience teaching PE, and 2–9 years of experience teaching JLL students in high school PE.

Research design

This study utilized a descriptive-qualitative design using an in-depth, semi-structured interview approach [Seidman, I. 2019. Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences. 5th ed. New York: Teacher College Press]. A constant comparative analysis method was used to analyze the data. In this study, the process of constantly comparing data from several sources led to tentative categories that were compared to each other and to other data in order to construct categories. In this study, meaningful narrative phrases were those related to PE pedagogical content and teacher development.

Findings

Explainable by concepts in positioning theory [Harré, R., and L. van Langenhove. 1999. “The Dynamics of Social Episodes.” In Positioning Theory: Moral Contexts of Intentional Action, edited by R. Harré, and L. van Langenhove, 1–13. Oxford: Blackwell], three major interrelated and complex themes emerged from the data analysis: (a) teachers’ positioning in securing a safe learning environment for JLL students in PE, (b) teachers’ dilemma in assessing JLL students’ learning outcomes based on performance assessments and written exams in PE, and (c) teachers’ positioning in their responsibilities as both teacher and host parent. To enhance the quality of PE classes, school districts need clear and focused goals related to assessment and evaluation, instructional planning, and responsibilities involved in teaching JLL students.

KEYWORDS:

• Japanese language learners
• positioning theory
• high schools
• physical education

Introduction

In recent years, the number of Japanese Language Learner (JLL) students, or children who speak a language other than Japanese and require Japanese language instruction, has been rapidly increasing in schools in Japan. Statistics from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) (2022) show that the number of JLL students increased from 33,184 in 2012 to 58,353 in 2021, an increase of over 75% in only nine years. Previous research has found that JLL students may struggle adjusting to Japanese schools due to language and communication barriers resulting in difficulty understanding school lessons and adapting to Japanese culture and customs (McCarthy 2020). Schools in Japan are often ill-equipped to provide appropriate services to JLL students, tending to promote monolingualism and treat students’ other languages as hindrances to assimilation (Ota 2005). JLL students are largely expected to renounce their ethnic backgrounds so as to become mainstream Japanese individuals even if it is not easy to do so and the psychological costs are high (Castro-Vázquez 2009). This can lead to identity crises and lowered self-esteem among JLL students (Kobayashi and Tsuboya 2021).

Successful inclusion of JLL students in the classroom creates opportunities for all students to engage with multiple languages and learn new cultures, backgrounds, history, and aspects of diversity that help them strengthen their overall cognitive abilities (Sato and Hodge 2009). In particular, physical education (PE) is considered an academic subject that can be a powerful tool to promote peace, tolerance, and understanding by bringing people together across boundaries, cultures, and religions by promoting the concepts of teamwork, fairness, discipline, and respect for the opponent in a game or activity (Beutler 2008). It is particularly important to understand the experiences of high school health and physical education (HPE) teachers in Japan because of JLL students’ lower rate of entry into high schools compared to Japanese children. In Japan, only the first nine years of schooling are mandatory, and although 98% of students in Japan continue to high school, among immigrant children this is as low as 11% to 60%, depending on nationality (Kobayashi and Tsuboya 2021). Furthermore, in high schools, immigrant children show a higher rate of non-attendance, slower progression, and higher dropout rates than Japanese children, and high schools may provide less support for immigrant children than junior high schools (Tokunaga 2017; 2018). Thus, a better understanding of the experiences of high school HPE teachers can help improve the support of JLL students at the high school level.

It is important to note that the situation in Japan is not unique. As international (im)migration increases around the world (Chamie 2020), schools in many countries are experiencing challenges in supporting linguistically and culturally diverse children (Bartlett 2015). Research has been conducted in some European countries (e.g. Spain, Sweden) focusing on the experiences of PE teachers and immigrant and refugee students in PE classes. This research has suggested that inclusion of such students in PE can be affected by cross-cultural differences regarding gender and religious beliefs (Caldeborg 2022; Marconnot et al. 2021) and that immigrant and refugee students may benefit from more explicit explanations of PE activities (Cseplö et al. 2022) and an increased amount of time in PE classes (Nieva Boza and Lleixà Arribas 2023). This research has also noted the important role of students’ families in encouraging involvement in PE, particularly among girls (Lleixà and Nieva 2020; Marconnot et al. 2021). However, it has also been suggested that PE teachers may feel ill-prepared to handle the cross-cultural issues involved in working with linguistically and culturally diverse students and may need additional training (Lleixà and Nieva 2020). Similarly, several studies have focused on PE teachers’ positioning in teaching English language learners at secondary schools (middle and high schools) in the United States (e.g. Sato, Miller, and Delk 2022; Sato and Sutherland 2013). For example, Sato, Miller, and Delk (2022) found that U.S. high school PE teachers had both positive experiences and struggles in teaching English language learners in PE class and managing differences in social and ethnolinguistic practices in PE, and that PE teachers felt a need for specialized training in working with culturally and linguistically diverse students in PE classes.

It is hoped that this study can contribute to a better understanding of how schools and, more specifically, HPE teachers can support and enhance the experiences of language learners in school contexts.

Japanese education system

Education in Japan is centralized under the MEXT (2018). In 1947, Japan’s Fundamental Law of Education was enacted and the school system was established with a philosophy of realizing the principle of equal opportunity for all (Franz 2007). Schools in Japan must adhere to specific national standards regarding what can be taught and how it is presented. In 2006, the National Commission on Education Reform released several policies on compulsory education including a revision of the Fundamental Law of Education (Franz 2007). Under this law, children (ages 3–5) attend yōchien (kindergarten programs), and youths (ages 6–12) attend shōgakkō (elementary schools). After shōgakkō, students (ages 12–15) attend chūgakkō (junior high schools). In order to attend high school, students must apply and pass a required entrance exam. Contingent upon their success on the entrance exam, those who complete the junior high school requirements can attend kōtō-gakkō (high schools).

Compulsory education in Japan runs only through ninth grade which is the final year of junior high school. Currently, more than 98% of students take entrance exams and attend high schools; however, JLL students with limited Japanese language proficiency have difficulty passing the entrance exams in high schools and so the rate of JLL students continuing to high school is much lower (Kobayashi and Tsuboya 2021). Although there is no national-level educational policy requiring schools to provide accommodations for JLL students, some prefectures (e.g. Saitama, Ibaraki) have recently developed policies that give JLL students who arrived in Japan recently the opportunity to take a different entrance examination from Japanese students (Saitama Prefecture 2023). In addition, some local school districts have elected to hire full- or part-time Japanese language instructors to assist JLL students, though this number is still quite small (Castro-Vázquez 2009).

Health and physical education in Japanese high schools

In Japan, high school health education lessons are 50 min long, with 2 credit hours (70 h) required within the three years of high school, and PE lessons are typically 45–50 min, and 7–8 credit hours (245-280 h) within three years are allocated for PE in high schools (MEXT 2018). PE views the body and mind from a holistic perspective that allows students to become physically active and participate in rigorous physical activity in schools. The ultimate objective is to cultivate an attitude that leads students to live a positive life integrated with physical activity (Nakai and Metzler 2005). All subjects, including HPE, in public schools, elementary through high school, are obligated to use textbooks that have been evaluated and approved by the MEXT (2018). The textbooks are chosen by the school board from authorized list. PE textbook contents focus on developing students’ abilities in individual and team sports and include exercise, gymnastics, swimming and others (MEXT 2018).

Purpose and theoretical framework

The purpose of this study is to describe and explain Japanese HPE teachers’ positioning of teaching and assisting JLL students during secondary PE classes. The current study was grounded in positioning theory (Harré and van Langenhove 1999). Positioning theory is based on social constructivism and assumes, among other things, that human behavior is goal-directed and constrained by group norms and behaviors and that individual subjectivity is shaped by each person’s interactions with others (Barnes 2004). In a social justice context, positioning theory allows researchers to find the manifold ways that teachers understand their own roles and responsibilities within a justice-oriented class environment and establish new positioning for themselves when they advocate their own justice (Todd 2003). Additionally, Sonu et al. (2012) explain that in order to map teachers’ moral responsibility, all teachers must reflect their own perspectives that explore the possibilities of reimagining human interconnection as more inclusive in certain educational settings. More specifically, in positioning theory, it is important that teachers and their professional community understand how they develop the following relationships including ‘trust or distrusted,’ ‘with us’ or ‘against us,’ ‘to be saved’ or ‘to be wiped out’ through professional growth (Moghaddam, Harré, and Lee 2008). For example, trust, openness, authenticity, and health allow teachers to motivate themselves to make their instruction more interesting and to create a more comfortable place to teach and learn. However, they may overemphasize that their instruction may focus on students’ cognitive development in the classrooms (Bryk and Schneider 2002). Therefore, following Harré and van Langenhove (1999), positioning theory can be used to see how HPE teachers position themselves as experts who are capable of giving relevant feedback and handling and respecting others’ differences through a storyline when they interact with JLL students in academic and social contexts. Positioning varies not just from moment to moment and across time, but also across situations. Context is everything in classrooms; it is the social as much as the academic content of learning to which teachers need to pay attention if we are to understand positioning and its influence and consequences for students’ learning (Erickson 1982).

There are two types of positioning (self-reflective positioning and interactive positioning) that allow researchers to explore the ways in which people position themselves and others, in this case to describe how teachers negotiate and implement PE curricula with JLL students and Japanese-speaking students. Self-reflective positioning addresses the active and conscious actions individuals undertake in order to position themselves in relation to others (Davies and Harré 1990). For example, teachers may position themselves as someone who adapts their instruction for language learners or who is a good communicator with people who speak other languages (Tran and Pasura 2019). Raggatt (2015) explains that self-reflective positioning includes I-position (e.g. I as teacher; I as coach; I as guardian for JLL students) that can positively or negatively change from one situation to another, but can also persist or have continuity over time.

According to Davies and Harré (1990), interactive positioning is when a person or group positions others based on their speech or actions. For example, a teacher may position JLL students negatively as strangers who do not speak Japanese or have different religious beliefs or positively as people who bring different cultural perspectives (Tsuneyoshi 2004). In this positioning, language and social practices take place in dialectical relationships where multiple people interact to accomplish certain actions within interactive social conditions (Felix and Ali 2023).

According to van Langenhove and Harré (1999), there are three aspects (positions, speech and other acts, and storylines) that are fundamental in characterizing the complexity of social interactions through positioning theory. Positions involve rights, duties, and obligations, as well as expectations about how one enacts these, which individuals can take up or resist (van Langenhove and Harré 1999). For example, HPE teachers might experience cultural shock that influence their own self-reflective positioning when they teach their JLL students. Oberg (1960) distinguished between the following four phases of cultural shock: honeymoon, crisis, recovery, and adjustment. In this study, study, HPE teachers may have positive feelings including new, exciting, and fascinating (honeymoon phase). Then, they had difficulties in assimilating to new professional environment (crisis phase). Then, HPE teachers realized that they should be patient in learning how best to recover and adjust to unique academic circumstances and backgrounds and find pedagogical strength and weakness. However, they struggled to increase self-confidence and improve self-motivation and cultural sensitivity within such a short period of time in PE classes.

Speech and other acts refer to the words one says or writes as well as other communicative acts that people use to position themselves and others (McVee, Brock, and Glazier 2011). These can include verbal speech acts such as explicit assertions, conversational strategies, or tone of voice as well as non-verbal acts such as body language, gestures, or eye contact. The effects of the communicative relationships change the situations of two individuals in transforming them as collaborative partners (e.g. teachers and students) within the class setting. Storyline refers to dynamic episodes or patterns that are created through speech acts and positions (McVee et al. 2021). Storylines represent the narratives and discursive constructions through which individuals make sense of their experiences and interactions.

The research questions guiding this study are: (a) What were Japanese HPE teachers’ experiences in teaching JLL students in secondary PE classes? and (b) How did Japanese HPE teachers position themselves and others in teaching JLL students in secondary PE classes?

Method

This study utilized a descriptive-qualitative design using an in-depth, semi-structured interview approach (Seidman 2019). The intent of using the interview method was to describe and explain Japanese HPE teachers’ positioning and to explore the meanings that they ascribed to their experiences. Unquestionably, interviewing is a powerful way to gain insight into educational and social phenomena experienced by individuals in educational contexts (Seidman 2019). In a descriptive qualitative research design, teachers’ positions are examined through their understanding of reality in an ongoing and constantly changing process (Davies and Harré 1990). During the data collection, researchers and teachers negotiated various positions by expressing their own views and perspectives in verbal or non-verbal form (Stuhlfauth, Knutsen, and Foss 2019). This means that a descriptive qualitative research design is an appropriate tool that explains researchers’ interview questions and speech acts that position the teachers during the semi-structured interview process, which allows the researcher to have a legitimate or meaningful way to generate data on the basis of ontological properties (Ruslin et al. 2022).

Examples include HPE teachers’ experiences in teaching JLL students and their reflections on educational and communication challenges. The lead author conducted a series of semi-structured interviews with seven HPE teachers involved in teaching JLL students in high school PE. This study sought to explore the participants’ interpretations of their experiences teaching JLL students.

Participants and research sites

The research sites in this study were Japanese high schools located in Japan. The researchers contacted schools, seeking HPE teachers who taught JLL students in PE classes at high schools. Seven HPE teachers were identified. A criterion sampling strategy was used. The logic of criterion sampling is to select and investigate all cases that meet predetermined criterion of importance or interest (Patton 2014). This study used the criterion that Japanese high schools had JLL students (international students) admission guidelines. More specifically, these high schools offered entrance exams for JLL students and taught JLL students who have lived and studied in another country for a year or more. In this study, all HPE teachers who taught JLL students in PE classes were identified. These HPE teachers indicated that their JLL students did not have a high degree of Japanese language proficiency. However, it seemed that some (though not all) of the JLL students had some degree of proficiency in English reading, writing, listening, and speaking which facilitated communication with their teachers.

The seven HPE teachers’ ages ranged from 25 to 52 years old. Five male and two female teachers voluntarily participated in this study. The teachers had between 3 and 23 years of experience teaching PE, and 2–9 years of experience teaching JLL students in PE at high schools. During the interview, they shared their thoughts, opinions, and experiences related to teaching JLL students in PE. Pseudonyms were assigned to all participants to ensure anonymity and protect their identity. Table 1 provides further descriptive information about each of the participants.

Table 1. Demographic information of the participants.

Pseudonym	Gender	Location (Prefecture)	Years of teaching experience	Years of teaching JLL students	Nationality of JLL students	First language of JLL students
Mr. Seino	Male	Chiba	12 years	4 years	Nepal, China, Philippines, Sri Lanka	Nepali, Chinese, Tagalog, Sinhala
Mr. Hashiba	Male	Saitama	9 years	9 years	Nepal, Philippines, Ethiopia	Nepali, Tagalog, Amharic
Mr. Ishibashi	Male	Saitama	23 years	4 years	Brazil, Peru, Philippines, China	Portuguese, Spanish, Tagalog, Chinese
Mr. Nago	Male	Ibaraki	4 years	4 years	Philippines	Tagalog
Mr. Akiba	Male	Ibaraki	30 years	6 years	Philippines, Brazil, Peru, Ghana, Pakistan, China	English, Tagalog, Portuguese, Spanish, Arabic, Urdu, Chinese
Ms. Kato	Female	Fukuoka	3 years	3 years	Nigeria	English
Ms. Mishima	Female	Hiroshima	11 years	2 years	Kenya	Swahili, English

Data collection

In the spring semester of 2022, approval to conduct this study was granted by the Institutional Review Board at the lead researcher’s university.

Participant interviews: The study used online, real-time interviews as a medium for the Japanese high school HPE teachers to reflect on and speak about communication challenges, concerns about maintaining a safe learning environment (e.g. during heatwaves, earthquake, or other severe weather), and their experiences including JLL students in PE classes at high schools. Because this study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, interviews were conducted through online video calls in order to maintain social distance and avoid face-to-face contact and long-distance travel. A 15-question interview guide was developed for the study based on Sato, Miller, and Delk (2022). The interviews lasted between 60 and 90 min and were open-ended, assuming a conversational tone. Examples of interview questions include: (a) How have your experiences in including JLL students in PE classes changed over time? (b) What were the challenges of including JLL students in your high school PE classes? Did you use any instructional techniques or strategies to overcome those challenges? (c) What are the advantages and/or disadvantages of teaching PE lessons that include JLL students? Are there any teaching strategies that can be applied to other academic subjects (e.g. health education)?

Data translation process: This study used a cross-cultural translation technique developed by Banville, Desrosiers, and Genet-Volet (2000), and employed in a study by Hodge et al. Four native Japanese translators (A [data collector], B, C and D) who were fluent in both English and Japanese languages and employed in education programs at universities in the United States and Japan, were solicited to conduct the translation technique. First, three translators (A, B, and C) individually translated the original Japanese version of the interview data into English. Next, they compared their versions and discussed any differences to arrive at an agreement. They then edited the interview data as deemed necessary for proper vocabulary, grammar, and syntax of the Japanese and English languages. The Japanese version from this process was sent to the fourth translator (Translator D) in the USA, who critically compared and discussed their translations to ensure that the meaning of the original items was preserved, making edits as recommended. In the second step, a committee comprised of three bilingual translators and an established PE faculty member were asked, via email correspondence, to critique (evaluate) the storyline of each interview. The committee recommended edits to the interview data to ensure that the meanings of the English and the original items were the same while respecting Japanese syntax. Agreement was reached on all items of the interview data.

Data analysis: A constant comparative method (Boeije 2010) was used to interpret the data from the online semi-structured interviews, which allowed themes to be identified from the data. The basic strategy of this analysis process is to do what its name implies: constantly compare (Hastie and Glotova 2012). Using constant comparative analysis, data from different people are compared and contrasted and the process continues until the researcher is satisfied that no new issues will arise from the data set (Glaser and Strauss 1967). In this study, the process of constantly comparing the interview data led to tentative categories that were compared to each other and to other data, which is the process of category construction. In this study, meaningful narrative phrases were those related to PE pedagogical content and teacher development. In this study, coding was conducted by the lead and second author and reviewed by the other authors to avoid potential researcher bias.

Results

Three themes emerged from the data analysis: (a) teachers’ positioning in securing a safe learning environment for JLL students in PE, (b) teachers’ dilemma in assessing JLL students’ learning outcomes based on performance assessments and written exams in PE, and (c) teachers’ positioning in their responsibilities as both teacher and host parent.

Theme I: teachers’ positioning in securing a safe learning environment for JLL students in PE

This theme captured HPE teachers’ various challenges in maintaining a safe learning environment for JLL students in PE classes. The participants positioned themselves as hardworking, intelligent, and successful guides for their JLL students. However, they were unaccustomed to working with JLL students and had inadequate resources, support, and infrastructure to accommodate the needs of JLL students, which positioned JLL students in an unsafe learning environment (Ishida, Nakamuro, and Takenaka 2016). The participants knew that they needed to move away from passive instruction to more active or interactive strategies that could energize the PE learning environment to maximize JLL student learning (Clapper 2010). However, they perceived that their JLL students were self-contained and afraid of making mistakes and being judged as unintelligent by Japanese students. For example, many JLL students had not seen or had prior opportunities to play some sports or physical activities. In addition, some PE equipment was new to them, which put JLL students in an unsafe learning environment. All participants explained that preventing accidents or injuries was difficult and a challenge of teaching JLL students because of language barriers and unpredicted behaviors of JLL students in PE classes. For example, Mr. Akiba said that:

In my PE class, there was a serious accident where one of the JLL students became temporarily unconscious during a physical activity using balls. The JLL student and a local student did not pay attention carefully and bumped each other hard. One of the issues is that many JLL students show unpredictable behaviors which lead to an unsafe learning environment. For example, when I taught tennis, many JLL students did not think about personal space when swinging the tennis rackets. PE classes become careless environment. They did not know how to predict the consequence when their rackets hit other students. The concept should be taught by classmates or teachers regarding how to respect others. I think before teaching PE, I need to teach them how to handle PE equipment and understand the meaning of safe activities. (Mr. Akiba interview)

In terms of positioning, Mr. Akiba showed interactive positioning in his statement that JLL students showed unpredictable behavior. However, he also shows self-reflective positioning in his statement that he should teach students about the importance of a safe personal space. He also said that all teachers should teach JLL students when to use equipment as well as cues that indicate that it was time to stop using the equipment. Another participant, Mr. Ishibashi, had concerns that when he explained manipulative skills or object control skills in sport and physical activities, he had a hard time to explain the detailed nuances of motor skills.

When I taught motor skills such as throwing and swinging, I used many formats and styles of motor skills such as overhand, underhand, and side throw. I also know various sports including baseball, basketball, or soccer. In baseball, I know that all Japanese students already knew that pitchers and fielders use an overhand throw. In PE class, I told students “let’s practice playing catch,” throwing and catching. However, some JLL students have not seen baseball games in their home countries, so they did not know the terminology of overhand throwing. I was scared that JLL students may have significant risks of getting hurt. I realized that HPE teachers should know how to use explicit verbal instruction and check for JLL students’ understanding in PE. The key of effective instruction is how the teachers use explicit instruction which allows JLL students to understand the detailed nuance and concept of behaviors, so this is extremely important. In fact, when I taught throwing, my JLL students did not know how far and hard they need to throw. It made the PE classes unsafe. I was scared and had to do something to secure a safe learning environment. (Mr. Ishibashi interview)

Mr. Ishibashi’s experience implies a need for HPE teachers to use low-context cultural communication when teaching PE to JLL students. Japan is a high-context culture and implicit communication and nonverbal cues are common, and this type of communication is what HPE teachers are used to. JLL students who come from a low-context culture may require more explicit and detailed verbal communication (Furuta et al. 2022). Another participant, Ms. Kato, explained that her JLL student who was from a developing country felt that it was unsafe to drink water from a faucet even though all other Japanese students drank from it during PE classes. She said that:

I had a student from Nigeria who could not believe that it was safe to drink natural water from a faucet in Japan. When I taught PE in extreme hot weather, I gave students a water break time to prevent dehydration. In Nigeria, drinking water from a faucet increases health risk factors, such as bacteria. As a teacher of JLL students, I had difficulty handling this situation. I think I need to respect students’ backgrounds and habit, but I would like to let her know cultural and school differences between Japan and Nigeria. (Ms. Kato interview)

Ms. Kato believed that JLL students from developing countries need to know the availability of public educational resources and learn how to adopt them in the school environment. Her self-reflective positioning is evident in her statements about her need to respect students’ backgrounds and to better understand cultural differences.

Theme II: teachers’ dilemma in assessing JLL students’ learning outcomes based on performance evaluations and written exams in PE

This theme captured the participants’ struggles to modify language when they developed PE lessons and exams for meeting the unique academic needs of JLL students in PE. More specifically, the participants had a dilemma because although their JLL students worked hard, language differences became significant issues of concern for JLL students’ test results. Although they knew that they should have the following attributes such as warmth, openness, and organization which allowed JLL students to have a sense of belonging and increase academic motivation, they treated JLL students as academically challenging or deficient students, because academic excellence is deeply rooted in Japanese traditional culture as it the belief in the benefits of education and hard work (Yan and Berliner 2009).

Teachers felt that PE class is a site for supporting language acquisition; for example, participants could label items using discipline-specific academic language (e.g. tactical games, combination of motor skills including locomotor and object control skills) (Samalot-Rivera, Treadwell, and Sato 2018). However, the participants believed that discipline-specific academic language in relation to locomotor or object control skills (e.g. skipping, sliding, swinging, dribbling) should be covered when JLL students were in elementary or junior high school, not high school. As a result, the participants felt that there were significant gaps between JLL students and Japanese students’ prior knowledge in PE. Many participants asked one or two English teachers to act as translators for the JLL students, but the participants still struggled to handle the language barriers. For example, Mr. Nago explained that:

When I gave PE exams about rules and routines of certain sports, JLL students could not read the kanji (Chinese characters) in Japanese, so I wrote the correct pronunciation of the character in hiragana above the kanji on the exam. I do this because JLL students may be able to read it and follow the directions in the exam even though they may not be able to fully understand the contents. I have a dilemma that giving extra language support may be unfair treatment for other students in the class, but it is necessary. I am still having a hard time figuring out the best approach for JLL students. (Mr. Nago interview)

Mr. Nago had cultural shock that his JLL student could not read and comprehend, but he positioned himself as considering JLL students’ academic success. Therefore, he believed that his language support and modification is helpful to guide his JLL students to be able to access the educational content of the exam and thereby better assess their knowledge of PE. Additionally, another participant, Mr. Hashiba explained that:

I have a dilemma when I assess students’ performance (e.g. on team sports such as basketball or soccer). I cannot speak any other languages, so I used some students who are bilingual (mainly Japanese and English) as translators during PE classes. When I conducted performance tests, I explained the rules, trial routines, and directions to the translator, then the translator explained the test to JLL students. When they performed the test, they did not fully follow the directions. That put me in a difficult position regarding assessment and evaluation. I have a dilemma about how to evaluate their performance. I don’t know if the problems are coming from the translators or JLL students … I am having problems. I did not know how to score JLL students. I would like to learn how to deal with this situation. (Mr. Hashiba interview)

Mr. Hashiba believed that he should learn about communication strategies for interacting with JLL students in PE. He believed that the student translator needs to know not only the language, but also the content of assessment and evaluation, so that he knows whether the mistakes are due to the translator’s lack of knowledge or the student’s understanding. However, he needs to analyze how to deal with confusion and frustration when there is miscommunication among JLL students, student translators, and teachers while teaching PE. Another participant, Mr. Seino said that some of his JLL students do not have experience playing racquet sports such as badminton or tennis in their home countries (e.g. Nepal, Sri Lanka). As a result, he struggled to assess and evaluate JLL students’ performance in PE. He said that:

I do not think it is right to give a lower score to my JLL students when they have not seen or played activities before. As a HPE teacher, I need to respect my JLL students’ academic backgrounds and history. I am trying to fill the learning gap between Japanese and JLL students, but it is difficult to do, but at the same time, I need to assess and evaluate all Japanese and JLL students. Maybe I need to know how to negotiate assessment and evaluation with my students. It is not right that I just give an average score on a performance test. I tend to give a lower grade, but … I am not sure if I am doing the right thing for JLL students regarding assessment and evaluation in my PE classes. (Mr. Seino interview)

Mr. Seino positioned himself as needing to adequately assess all Japanese and JLL students in the classroom and respect their voices in order to fairly assess and evaluate them.

Theme III: teachers’ positioning in their responsibilities as both teacher and host parent

This theme captured HPE teachers’ difficulties in fulfilling their responsibilities as both teacher and host parent for JLL students, both in and out of PE classes. For example, there are many cases where high school students receive medical care for heatstroke during or after PE classes. Teachers informed JLL students and contacted their parents about what to bring (e.g. cold water, salt, towel) and how to stay cool. However, participants had difficulty in communicating with JLL students’ parents about ways to prevent life-threatening situations for their JLL students (e.g. first-aid treatment, health concerns). Therefore, they needed to fulfill responsibilities both as a teacher and as a host parent. Mr. Ishibashi said that:

I think it is important to change the power dynamic between teachers and students in PE. Sometimes JLL students were intimated and hesitated to ask some questions, because it seemed that I have the authority to control classes. Therefore, I need to be their friend sometimes and try to understand what JLL students want. In this area, it has become extremely hot and humid during the spring and summer. Heatstroke became an issue here. Teaching students how to stay cool is important, so I tell them what to bring and how to stay cool. However, I cannot explain the details in other languages, so I bring towels and water for JLL students. (Mr. Ishibashi interviews).

Mr. Ishibashi explained that some JLL students did not bring water or towels, so he brought extra ones from his home. He felt that it is an extra effort for JLL students which could be considered as unfair treatment by other students, but it is necessary. He hoped that all teachers would recognize that there are many duties and responsibilities outside of teaching PE for JLL students. Another participant, Ms. Mishima discussed responsibilities she performed outside of PE class, saying that,

I have two JLL students from Kenya in my class. I am a PE teacher, but I am also serving as their guardian while they attend this high school, because these students live in a school dormitory even though this high school is a public school. Their parents and families are in Kenya, so it is difficult. I am responsible for their academic subjects, including PE. For example, I had to teach them about various brands of detergent for clothes and how to use the washing machine. Then I taught them the concept of gym clothes. It seems like I am their mother and also take care of their academic preparation for PE. (Ms. Mishima interview)

Ms. Mishima believed that it was important to teach hygiene skills including how to use detergent and the washing machine before teaching PE. In this case, the teacher can be considered a resource teacher who provides availability and accessibility of schools to their JLL students (Barnes 2004). Ms. Kato said that her JLL student had difficulty demonstrating money management practices when they purchased clothes.

This may not be related to only PE, but it may become an issue with other programs such as athletics or extracurricular activities. They live in a dormitory and I am a Japanese mother, even though I am 24 years old right now. My students from Nigeria did not have access to various household goods, clothes, or other educational resources when they attended this school. In PE, the school requires an extra T-shirt. When I took JLL students from Nigeria to a clothing store, they selected their favorite T-shirt designs without checking prices. Therefore, when they received a certain amount of monthly pocket money, they needed to manage their expenses. I am their PE teacher, but I need to teach money management skills. (Ms. Kato interview)

Ms. Kato explained that she needed to have a mother’s attitude, actions, and appearance which serve as a model for JLL students’ physical and mental development. She believed that her position is to support her JLL students’ as they adapt to the school climate and learn how to develop money management skills while living and studying in Japan.

Discussion

Due to communication difficulties encountered during PE classes, the HPE teachers had concerns about creating a safe learning environment because of JLL students’ unfamiliarity with how to safely use PE equipment and teachers’ own inability to predict JLL students’ behaviors. The teachers struggled to overcome this situation when they taught JLL students in PE classes. The HPE teachers also faced a dilemma in assessing JLL students’ learning outcomes using performance evaluations and written exams in PE. They needed to provide additional language support and assistance (which may be perceived as different or unfair treatment between Japanese and JLL students) while assessing student learning outcomes. When they conducted performance assessments of JLL students, they were concerned about the possibility of mistranslation or miscommunication if they asked other students to serve as translators, which could result in JLL students not receiving accurate and reliable assessment opportunities. These miscommunications regarding assessment procedures made the HPE teachers struggle to grade JLL students’ learning outcomes. Lastly, the HPE teachers are positioned to serve not only as teachers, but also host parents of the JLL students, a responsibility they may be unfamiliar with and unprepared to perform.

Theme I: teachers’ positioning in securing a safe learning environment for JLL students in PE

The HPE teachers had assumed that their JLL students already knew about various physical activities and sports from their prior experiences in their home countries and were surprised to learn that the JLL students did not know how to use particular PE equipment. Such a misunderstanding could result in accidents or injuries in PE classes. The HPE teachers must understand two different types of knowledge between risk-taking and risk-making (Zinn 2019). In risk-taking, the HPE teachers push JLL students to accept a risk. In risk-making, the HPE teachers try to do something new, but JLL students’ use of unfamiliar equipment without adequate training in how to use it can put both the JLLs and Japanese students in danger. In this study, the HPE teachers did not seem to have considered that teaching new PE contents using equipment is a greater risk, and they could not deliver the concept of risk and safety management to JLL students while teaching PE (Boholm 2018). In positioning theory, the HPE teachers must use a collaborative learning approach (e.g. group work) in which they negotiate and discuss behavioral norms for doing activities safely through group work with Japanese and JLL students (Barnes 2004). Porsanger and Sandseter (2021) explain that when students’ knowledge of risk is weak, low, or unknown, teachers’ perception of safety in PE may be incorrect and safety procedures are not applied.

Teachers’ experiences also highlighted cultural differences in communication. HPE teachers need to pay attention to intercultural communication differences, such as the difference between low- and high-context cultures. For example, in a low-context culture, communication between people is made more explicit and nonpersonal, new information is more easily introduced, and confrontation and open disagreement is more acceptable. On the other hand, in a high-context culture such as Japan, communication depends more on the physical or social context, and less information is explicitly verbalized. In order to prevent miscommunication with JLL students, teachers could follow Hill and Flynn’s (2006) suggestion of using use low-level questions (e.g. checking for understanding) and simple verbs in easy phrases to help their JLL students identify basic pictures or words in Japanese during PE classes. In positioning theory, teachers’ positioning in a certain way (e.g. in a teacher-helping-pupil storyline) carries obligations or expectations about how he or she behaves, or constrains what she or he meaningfully says or does for JLL students in PE (Barnes 2004). More specifically, the teachers assume a duty to explain and have a right to issue instructions, check for understanding, and evaluate their responses through the storyline of ‘teacher helping JLL students.’

The HPE teachers found another misunderstanding when some JLL students, especially from developing countries, were afraid of drinking water from a faucet during PE classes because they believed that the water was poor quality and could be contaminated. Studies (e.g. Ohwo 2019; Wada et al. 2022) have reported that many students in developing countries still do not have access to potable water and sanitation services, and the safety of drinking water in schools may be compromised by the absence of an adequate sanitary infrastructure (Cronk et al. 2021). Therefore, HPE teachers should educate JLL students that the drinking water supply in schools is safe and that drinking water during PE is important to prevent incidents such as heatstroke.

Thus, while teachers’ main concern was creating a safe physical environment, it is important for them to consider other aspects of the environment as well. In order to create a safe physical environment, teachers need to also consider how they position themselves and their JLL students within the linguistic environment and cultural environment. By being open to differences in background knowledge, linguistic ability, and cultural knowledge, teachers can create not only a physically safe environment but also an emotionally safe environment.

Theme II: teachers’ dilemma in assessing JLL students’ learning outcomes based on performance evaluations and written exams in PE

The HPE teachers felt that without understanding the Japanese language, JLL students had difficulty understanding their lessons in PE. They also found major difficulties in terms of terminology and concepts in relation to locomotor or manipulative skills between Japanese and JLL students, which made teachers face unique challenges (McCarthy 2020). In schools, language learners are often faced with the dual challenge of learning academic concepts and the language for those concepts at the same time. Learners’ acquisition of language is greatly affected by the presence or absence of prior knowledge of concepts from their first-language experiences (Jiang 2000; Murphy, Miller, and Hamrick 2021). In addition, language learners may take additional time to learn the language of academics. Cummins (1979) differentiates between basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS), or language of informal communication, and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP), or language for academic purposes. Cummins (1981) found that although language learners typically learn BICS within a year or two, much longer (five to seven years) is required for learning CALP. Thus, even if JLLs show some degree of BICS ability in Japanese, they may still lack the necessary CALP ability, such as the specific language of PE, for performance in class and on assessments.

When HPE teachers taught and assessed JLL students using the Japanese language, they realized that there was a potential mismatch between the students’ level of understanding and the level of language used in questions and instructions (Ziegenfuss, Odhiambo, and Keyes 2014). In Japanese high schools, all students (including JLL students) are expected to learn a tremendous amount of Japanese written characters (kanji) throughout their academic years. Even if students’ first language is Japanese, they have significant challenges in taking tests and exams due to the complex written characters (Galan 2005). Thus, JLL students may struggle to understand written instructions and exam questions. The lack of a coherent and consistent policy for supporting JLL students’ language and literacy development means that individual teachers and schools are left to find solutions.

This echoes the results of Cseplö et al. (2022), who found that immigrant students’ involvement in PE was facilitated by greater understanding of the rules of PE activities, but that they encountered communication difficulties with their teachers. In the present study, many HPE teachers used other high school students as student interpreters to help JLL students’ understand PE activities and assessments. Vargas-Madriz and Konishi (2021) explain that social support enhances student’s educational experiences and promotes students’ engagement, and previous research has found that language learners benefit from peer support (Cole 2014). However, the HPE teachers struggled to deal with miscommunications when the student interpreter translated and explained assessment procedures and directions during assessments (e.g. physical test). Although peer translation can be an effective strategy, it can also cause problems when peer translators make mistakes or do not fully understand the concepts or language themselves (Ragno 2021); furthermore, peer translation may not be appropriate for high-stakes assessments or sensitive information (Samway and Taylor 2008).

When the HPE teachers grade JLL students’ learning outcomes, their grading strategies are affected by their beliefs, values, classroom realities, external factors, decision making rationale, and assessment practices (Gao, Liu, and Yin 2021). This study found that HPE teachers faced a dilemma about whether they should give JLL students a (lower) grade based on their mastery of skills or a (higher) grade based on their effort (Brookhart and Nitko 2014). If the teachers consider students’ efforts, students might be motivated to work harder. Simultaneously, giving them higher grades may give JLL students a false sense of their mastery of the learning goals in PE. In positioning theory, JLL students’ assessment results contribute to what a successful student looks like and how JLL students’ positions are oriented by interacting with the teachers across multiple educational settings and contexts (Barth 1969).

Theme III: teachers’ positioning in their responsibilities as both teachers and host parent

The HPE teachers discussed the challenges of performing responsibilities as both a teacher and as a host parent for JLL students. In order to develop trusting relationships, teachers must meet two stages, a secure base and a safe haven for JLL students. First, they must develop a secure base which enables their JLL students to explore new experiences and engage more in classroom activities. Then, in the second stage, they begin to serve as a safe haven (as parents) for their JLL students by providing comfort, safety, and reassurance when students experience fear or stress from cross-cultural experiences (Xu et al. 2023). Therefore, Ms. Kajiwara and Ms. Mihara were teachers and athletic coaches of JLL students from Nigeria and Kenya who did not have any parents or siblings in Japan. This means that Ms. Kajiwara and Ms. Mihara were the ones who were building their trust with their JLL students and served as sources of knowledge, both academic and non-academic, for their JLL students.

Although some teachers experienced closeness through communication, warmth, and affection with their JLL students, they struggled to negotiate their varying responsibilities, because they may overstep boundaries as host parents and teachers (Becker et al. 2014). More specifically, they need to pay attention to two different types of responsibilities (interpersonal and intrapersonal). Smit et al. (2008) state that interpersonal responsibilities become conflicts that exist between teachers, students, and an organization (high schools), such as a disagreement over the educational vision for JLL students. These conflicts are those where the teachers have competing demands between their different responsibilities (Lipsky, Friedman, and Harkema 2017), such as their responsibilities as teacher and host parent for JLL students. Therefore, teachers need to be cautious balancing their own positioning in regard to behaving, acting, and socializing with JLL students (Fauzi, Muizzuddin, and Subekhan 2019). In positioning theory, self-reflective positioning includes the concept of the dialogical self, which is the extended repertoire or landscape of I-positions (e.g. teacher or host parent), which can change from one situation to another based on the educational context (Raggatt 2015). Plus, teachers with various responsibilities are forced to continuously negotiate these and face inherent ambiguity or uncertainty which may adversely affect teachers’ identity and beliefs (Moghadam 1999). Therefore, it is important that HPE teachers share their responsibilities with other colleagues and school administrators, so that they may be able to find better or clearer positions that help the JLL students succeed in high schools.

Conclusions and recommendations

In conclusion, due to these important findings and echoing recommendations of other studies (e.g. Lleixà and Nieva 2020), we emphasize the need for school districts and HPE teachers to organize professional learning workshops that allow teachers to discuss their experiences and learn strategies for working with linguistically and culturally diverse students. In designing these workshops, we recommend following Blasco, Kjærgaard, and Thomsen’s (2021) suggestion of dividing the workshops into three different stages. In the first stage, school districts should include discussion of HPE teachers’ perceptions of JLL students, teachers’ self-perceptions, and their preferred teaching roles and responsibilities. Then, in the second stage, they focus on presentation and discussion of evidence-based teaching practices for including JLL students in PE classes. In the final stage, HPE teachers meet school administrators and teaching supervisors to prepare in-class observation, assessment, and evaluation plans. In addition, to understand students’ voices, JLLs themselves could be included in the workshops to share and discuss their perspectives, understandings, and experiences both in their home country and in Japan.

Drawing on the findings of the present study and previous studies (e.g. Caldeborg 2022; Lleixà and Nieva 2020), the workshops could focus on social justice and diversity-related topics, high and low-context cultures, and culturally responsive strategies. In addition, since parental involvement has been found to contribute to immigrant children’s success in PE (e.g. Lleixà and Nieva 2020; Marconnot et al. 2021; Tomura et al. 2024a), we recommend development of teacher professional development programs that focus on cultural and ethical considerations to promote involvement of JLL students’ parents in PE and in collaborating with HPE teachers (see Tomura et al. 2024b for an example of such training).

Furthermore, we note that in many of the interviews, the HPE teachers positioned JLLs as lacking or having a deficit of knowledge about physical activities and sports. Such a deficit mindset is well documented among teachers who are new to working with culturally and linguistically diverse students (e.g. Garmon 2005), and PE and sport culture can often have assimilationist tendencies (Smith, Spaaij, and McDonald 2019). Thus, as Cseplö et al. (2022) point out, it is important for teachers to incorporate strengths-based approaches into PE curriculums by embracing diversity and celebrating differences. Workshops could be designed to help HPE teachers to better recognize their JLL students’ strengths, talents, and existing knowledge. For example, while JLLs may not know the rules of certain sports often played in PE classes in Japan, they might know the rules of others sports or activities from their home country that they could share, thereby enriching the experience of all students.

Through these workshops, HPE teachers would gain knowledge and skills for securing students’ physical and emotional safety in PE classes. In addition, school districts need to invite and collaboratively work with specialists in second language acquisition or linguistics to design assessment manuals and testing procedures in PE. For example, when the HPE teachers develop an assessment manual, they must use clear language free of unnecessary complexity. Due to the paucity of research in this area, it is important to continue to explore these issues in Japanese high schools.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science [grant number 22H00999)].